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CHRONOLOGIA  MEDICA 


A HANDLIST  OF  PERSONS,  PERIODS  AND  EVENTS 

IN  THE 

HISTORY  OF  MEDICINE 


BY 

Sir  D’ARCY  POWER,  K.B.E., 
M.B.Oxon.,  F.R.C.S.Eng. 

Consulting  Surgeon  to  St.  Bartholomew' s Hospital 
AND 

C.  J.  S.  THOMPSON,  M.B.E. 

Associate  of  the  Royal  Academy  of  Medicine  ( Turin ) 
Curator  of  the  Wellcome  Historical  Medical  Museum,  London 


R 

104  PAUL  B.  HOEBER,  Inc. 

• P88 

1923  67-69,  EAST  59TH  STREET, 

NEW  YORK. 


MCMXXIII. 


P 8 7c 
I 9 2 3 


Made  and  Printed  in  Great  Britain. 


FOREWORD. 


It  has  been  our  endeavour  in  the  following  pages  to 
present  a handlist  of  the  chief  persons,  periods  and  events 
in  the  history  of  the  healing  art  from  traditional  times  far 
back  in  the  mists  of  antiquity,  onwards  through  the  ages 
to  the  present  time. 

The  importance  of  dates  and  periods  to  the  student  of 
the  history  of  medicine  is  obvious.  They  help  to  memorize 
the  names  of  those  who  made  the  discoveries  forming 
the  milestones  in  the  march  of  progress  which  have  raised 
medicine  to  its  present  position. 

In  the  traditional  period  chronology  is  largely  conjec- 
tural, accuracy  is  often  impossible  : dates  must  necessarily 
be  approximate,  and  discrepancies,  sometimes  of  thousands 
of  years,  occur  between  epochs  about  which  we  can  only 
guess : such  as  are  instanced  in  the  accounts  of  many 
physicians  and  surgeons  in  Greek  and  Roman  times. 
The  date,  therefore,  at  which  a physician  flourished  is  only 
obtained  with  difficulty,  unless  he  was  so  distinguished 
as  to  have  found  a biographer.  In  many  cases  he  was 
attached  to  the  court  of  a monarch  or  he  may  have 
been  the  master  or  pupil  of  some  distinguished  personage 
whose  epoch  is  known,  and  from  this  his  period  may 
be  determined. 


111 


Foreword 


The  works  of  many  of  the  older  and  even  the  most 
celebrated  physicians  have  been  entirely  lost  and  their 
names  alone  remain  with  a few  facts  about  their  teaching 
or  practice.  But  in  most  cases  the  writers  of  antiquity 
were  industrious  copyists,  commentators  and  even  gross 
plagiarists.  They  have  interpolated  in  their  own  writings 
long  passages  and  sometimes  whole  treatises  of  their  pre- 
decessors, whilst,  thanks  to  their  respect  for  authority  and 
for  the  written  word,  much  has  been  preserved  which 
would  otherwise  have  been  lost  beyond  recovery, 

A mere  collection  of  names  and  dates,  however,  would 
be  of  little  interest  or  use,  so  a semblance  of  vitality  has 
been  given  to  our  chronology  by  the  addition  of  some 
interesting  facts  concerning  each  person,  epoch  or  event. 

These  are  not  intended  to  be  complete  biographies  of 
the  individual,  nor  does  this  list  purpose  to  be  in  any  sense 
a history  of  medicine. 

To  clothe  the  skeleton  the  student  is  referred  to  and 
should  consult  the  works  mentioned  in  the  Bibliography. 


ERRATUM. 

The  portrait  on  page  177  is  that  of  James  Gregory,  F.R.S.  (1638- 
1675)  professor  of  mathematics  at  St.  Andrews  and  Edinburgh,  and 
inventor  of  the  reflecting  telescope  in  1662. 

He  was  the  great-grandfather  of  James  Gregory,  the  physician 
mentioned  in  the  text. 


iv 


CH RONOLOGIA  MEDICA. 

TRADITIONAL  PERIOD. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 

ca.  = circa , the  approximate  date  only  can  be  given, 
fi.  = floruit , the  time  at  which  he  is  thought  to  have 
reached  his  maximum, 
d.  = died. 

BABYLONIA,  CHALDEA,  ASSYRIA. 

ca.  5000  b.c. — Ea,  or  Oannes.  “ He  who  knows  all 
things.”  “The  Lord  of  Deep  Wisdom.”  The 
earliest  known  deity  associated  with  healing. 
Called  “ Lord  of  the  Deep,”  for  according  to 
Berossus  “ He  arose  from  the  sea  and  in- 
instructed  the  people  in  learning.”  He  is 
represented  as  a man  with  the  head  of  a fish 
or  clothed  in  a fish  skin.  His  worship  is  asso- 
ciated with  Eridu,  the  holy  city  of  South 
Babylonia. 


A 


i 


Babylonian  Medicine 

ca.  4500  B.C.— Marduk,  or  Merodach.  The  chief  Baby- 
lonian deity  of  healing,  and, 
according  to  tradition,  son  of 
Ea.  As  supposed  founder  of 
the  Zodiac  and  “ Lord  of  the 
Planets  ” he  was  believed  to 
be  the  healer  of  all  diseases, 
and  also  to  influence  health 
and  disease  in  mankind  through 
the  medium  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  His  powers  are  thus 
described  in  a Babylonian  tablet 
ca.  4500  b.c.  : — 

O Marduk,  thou  art  glorious  among  the  great  gods  ! 
No  will  is  greater  than  thine. 

Thou  canst  inflict  upon  the  guilty  one  a dropsy 
which  no  incantation  can  cure. 

Thou  art  the  merciful  one  who  taketh  pleasure  in 
raising  the  dead  to  life”  (i.e.  healing  of  the  sick). 

ca.  4500  b.c. — Nina.  Chief  deity  of  Lagash  or  Sirpurra 
and  according  to  tradition  a daughter  of  Ea. 
ca.  3500  b.c.— Adapa.  Believed  to  be  the  human  incarna- 
tion of  Marduk,  the  divine  son  of  Ea.  Became 
recognized  as  a deity  of  healing  about  3500  B.c. 
and  said  to  possess  the  spells  of  Life  and  Death. 
He  is  often  called  the  “ son  or  man  of  Eridu,” 
the  holy  city  of  South  Babylonia.  Generali- 
represented  as  a fisherman  with  a figure  in- 
dicative of  great  physical  strength.  He  is 
thus  referred  to  in  a Babylonian  tablet, 
ca.  3500  b.c.  : — 


2 


Babylonian  Medicine 
“ Ea  gave  him  wisdom, 

So  that  his  command  was  like  unto  the  word  of  a god- 
To  him  also  he  gave  deep  knowledge  : 

With  the  healing  spell  of  Life  and  Death  he  was 
made.” 

ca.  3500  b.c. — Ellil.  A minor  deity  of  healing.  A temple 
dedicated  to  him  was  erected  at  Nippur  to 
which  the  sick  were  brought  to  be  healed, 
ca.  3000  b.c. — Gula.  “The  Great  Healer,”  “The  Mis- 
tress of  Charms  and  Spells,”  “ The  Terrible 
Goddess.”  This  deity  had  a dual  character 
and  was  revered  as  a goddess  of  healing  also 
as  the  “ mistress  of  poisons  and  death-dealing 
diseases.”  She  was  the  deified  form  of  the 
sorceress  and  the  medical  schools  at  Borsippa 
and  Sirpurra  were  both  under  her  protection. 
At  a later  period  Gula  appears  to  have  been 
definitely  established  as  a goddess  of  healing 
with  a medical  school  attached  to  her  temple. 
The  dog  was  her  sacred  emblem, 
ca.  3000  b.c. — Ninib.  God  of  healing  and  consort  of  Gula. 

EGYPT. 

Thoth.  Considered  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  to  be  the 
embodiment  of  divine  wisdom.  To  him  was 
attributed  the  invention  of  the  arts,  sciences, 
learning  and  magic.  He  was  especially  skilled 
in  the  art  of  healing.  Reputed  to  be  the  author 
of  the  six  divine  books  dealing  with  these 
subjects,  and  said  to  have  “ conferred  enlight- 
enment upon  doctors.”  The  Greeks  identified 
him  with  Hermes  Trismegistos. 


3 


Egyptian  Medicine 

Hermes  Trismegistos.  The  “ Thrice  Great.”  An  ancient 
Egyptian  personage  who  is  supposed  to  have 
originated  the  science  of  chemistry.  He  was 
the  prototype  of  the  Greek  Hermes. 

Ptah.  “Father  of  the  Mighty  Fathers.”  “Father  of 
Beginnings,”  and  “ Creator  of  his  own  Image.” 
He  was  the  chief  god  in  Memphis  and  with 
Sekhet  and  I-em-Hetep  formed  one  of  the 
great  triad  of  deities  who  were  worshipped 
at  Memphis,  where  a magnificent  temple  was 
erected  to  him.  His  healing  powers  are  chiefly 
associated  with  the  blind  and  deaf. 

ca.  3500  b.c. — I-em-Hetep.  “ He  who  cometh  in  peace.’’ 

“ Good  Physician  of  gods  and 
men.”  Was  regarded  as  the  son  of 
Ptah  and  the  chief  deity  of  medi- 
cine. His  first  temple  was  estab- 
lished in  Memphis,  which  became 
a centre  for  healing.  At  a later 
period  temples  were  dedicated  to 
him  at  Edfu  and  various  parts  of 
Upper  Egypt.  It  is  probable 
that  he  wTas  a real  personage  who 
lived  in  the  Third  Dynasty,  and 
was  a priest  of  Ra,  the  Sun-God, 
who  for  his  great  skill  in  healing  was  raised 
to  the  position  of  demi-god.  He  is  said  to 
have  visited  the  suffering  to  give  them  “ peace- 
ful sleep  and  heal  their  pains  and  diseases.” 
According  to  various  records  he  is  “ the 


4 


Egyptian  Medicine 

beneficent  god  who  listens  to  the  prayers  of 
the  people,  and  by  his  protection  gives  life  to 
all  human  beings  in  all  places.”  “ The  god 
who  protects  human  beings,  who  gives  to  him 
who  calls  upon  him,  who  gives  life  to  men  and 
women  and  who  gives  life  to  all  who  are 
bounden  to  him.”  He  is  also  called  the  “god 
who  looks  after  the  sick,”  and  “the  worshipful 
or  holy  god  who  gives  a son  to  him  who  has 
none.” 

ca.  3500  b.c. — Edwin  Smith  Papyrus. — Found  among  the 
collection  of  the  New  York  Historical  Society. 
Describes  forty-seven  different  cases  of  affec- 
tions and  injuries  of  the  head,  nose  and  mouth, 
also  methods  of  bandaging. 

ca.  2700  b.c. — Nenekhsekhmel.  Sikhit-En-Ankh.  Chief 
physician  to  one  of  the  Kings  of  the  Fifth 
dynasty,  on  whose  tomb  at  Sakkarah  is  re- 
corded an  inscription  stating  the  consideration 
he  received  from  Pharaoh  for  his  services. 

ca.  2700  b.c. — The  Petrie  Papyrus.  Excavated  by 
Flinders  Petrie  near  the  pyramid  of  Illahun. 

ca.  2000  b.c. — Kahun  Papyrus.  Excavated  1899.  Trans- 
lated by  Griffith. 

ca.  1552  b.c. — Papyrus  Ebers.  The  most  complete  record 
of  Egyptian  medicine  known,  discovered  by 
Georg  Ebers  at  Thebes  in  1872.  Preserved 
at  Leipsic  and  consists  of  no  pages. 

ca.  1550  b.c. — Hearst  Medical  Papyrus,  discovered  by 

5 


Chinese  Medicine 


George  A.  Reisner.  Consists  of  17  pages  pre- 
served at  the  University  of  California. 

ca.  1300  b.c . — Medical  Papyrus,  in  Berlin.  Contains  21 
pages  and  was  published  by  Brugsch. 

ca.  1000  B.c. — Medical  Papyrus,  in  the  British  Museum, 
London. 

CHINA. 

2838-2698  b.c. — Sheng  Nung.  Founder  of  the  healing 
art  in  China  and  called  “the  father  of  agricul- 
ture.” Believed  by  the  Chinese  to  have  dis- 
covered the  medicinal  properties  of  plants. 

2697  b.c.-— Wong  Tal.  Author  of  the  earliest  known 
Chinese  book  on  medicine,  a work  in  twelve 
volumes.  He  was  regarded  as  the  true  father 
of  Chinese  medicine. 

221-264  a.d. — Wa  T O.  Father  of  Chinese  surgery.  He  is 
said  to  have  used  a mixture  of  Indian  hemp 
and  other  substances  to  produce  anaesthesia 
before  operating. 

200  a.d. — Hua  T’O.  Chinese  physician  of  the  second  cen- 
tury. Skilled  in  the  practice  of  acupuncture 
and  the  use  of  the  cautery. 

HINDU. 

Dhanwantari.  Called  “The  Physician  of  the  Gods,”  “The 
Health  Bestowing  One,”  The  Vedic  Deity 
of  Medicine.  He  was  believed  to  be  master 
of  universal  knowledge,  and  instructed  the 


6 


Indian  Medicine 


Hindus  in  the  healing  art.  According  to  tra- 
dition he  was  sent  upon  earth  by  Indra  when 
the  world  was  sick  to  instruct  physicians, 
among  whom  was  Susruta.  Bramah  revealed 
to  him  the  Ayur-Veda,  and  the  sacred  books  of 
medicine. 

Atreya.  Son  of  Atri,  a Vedic  saint  who  wrote  the  earliest 
known  treatise  on  medicine — the  Atreya  Sam- 
hita. 

Agnivesha.  A physician  and  pupil  of  Atreya  who  wrote 
on  ophthalmology  and  a treatise  on  the  dia- 
gnosis of  disease. 

Harita.  A pupil  of  Atreya.  Author  of  a treatise  on 
medicine  in  which  he  describes  the  circulation 
of  the  blood. 

ca.  4500-2500  b.c. — Yedas.  The  sacred  writings  of  the 
Hindus  which  contain  many  allusions  to  medi- 
cine. To  the  second  of  the  Vedas  belongs  the 
Ayur-Vedas  of  the  physicians  Charaka  and 
Susruta,  which  were  composed  about  1000  b.c. 
The  Vedas  originated  about  4500-2500  b.c. 
and  are  said  to  have  been  preserved  by  oral 
tradition  until  about  1500  a.d. 

ca.  1000  b.c. — The  AtharYa  Yeda.  Contains  many  allu- 
sions to  the  healing  art  — the  tenth  book 
includes  a hymn  on  the  creation  of  man  in 
which  several  bones  ol  the  body  are  enumer- 
ated in  complete  agreement  with  the  system 
of  Atreya. 


7 


Persian  and  Phoenician  Medicine 

ca.  625  b.c. — Yagbhatai.  Author  of  an  important  work 
on  medicine  and  diseases^ 

ca.  600  b.c. — Charaka.  Disciple  of  Atreya  and  Agni- 
vesha.  His  work  on  medicine  contains  120 
chapters,  mentioning  leprosy,  epilepsy  and 
^ tuberculous  disease. 

ca.  600  b.c. — Susruta.  Disciple  of  Dhanwantari.  Author 
of  the  first  Hindu  book  on  surgery,  in  which 
he  describes  many  operations  and  enumerates 
1 21  surgical  instruments,  760  medicinal  plants 
and  alludes  to  malarial  fever. 


PERSIA. 

2000  b.c. — Zoroaster.  Author  of  Zend-Avesta  (Living 
Word),  a portion  of  which  deals  with  healing, 
and  was  the  foundation  of  ancient  Persian 
medicine. 

500  b.c. — Ainyama.  Persian  deity  of  healing. 

500  b.c. — Thrita.  Persian  deity  of  the  physicians  “ who 
first  combated  disease  and  death.” 


PHCENICIA. 

Baal-Zebal.  Ancient  Phoenician  deity  of  healing. 

Esmun.  Son  of  Synyk.  Deity  of  healing.  The  eighth 
of  the  Cabiri.  Temples  dedicated  to  him  stood 
at  Carthage  and  Berytus.  Was  believed  to 
endow  mankind  with  health. 


Scandinavian,  Prussian,  Aztec  and  Greek  Medicine 
SCANDINAVIA. 

Eir.  An  ancient  female  goddess  of  healing  and  one  of 
the  attendant  deities  of  Frigg.  In  ancient 
times  the  women  attended  the  wounded  on  the 
field  of  battle  under  the  protection  of  this 
goddess. 

PRUSSIA. 

PerkuntlOS.  An  ancient  deity  of  healing,  to  whom  a 
temple  was  erected  at  Romove. 

AZTEC. 

Ixtlilton.  Ancient  Aztec  deity  of  healing,  especially  asso- 
ciated with  diseases  of  children. 

Tzapotleman.  Aztec  deity  of  healing  and  wife  of  Ixtlilton. 
Is  said  to  have  discovered  healing  spices. 

GREEK. 

Apollo.  According  to  tradition  the  father  of  Asklepios. 

With  his  far-reaching  and  swift  arrows  (sun 
rays)  he  was  said  to  afflict  men  with  pestilence 
and  epidemics.  He  was  believed  to  possess 
the  power  of  restoring  the  dead  to  life. 

Gheiron.  The  first  traditional  personage  in  Greek  myth- 
ology associated  with  healing.  According  to 
early  writers  he  instructed  Asklepios  the  son 
of  Apollo  in  the  medicinal  properties  of  plants, 
which  he  gathered  on  Mount  Pelion,  a district 
he  frequented,  and  where  he  culled  his  healing 


9 


Greek  Medicine 


herbs.  Called  by  Homer  “ The  Sire  of  Phar- 
macy.” 

ca.  1300  b.c.—  Asklepios.  The  chief  Greek  deity  of 

medicine,  who  according  to  tra- 
dition was  the  son  of  Apollo  and 
Coronis.  Secrets  of  the  heal- 
ing art  were  said  to  have  been 
transmitted  from  Cheiron  to 
Asklepios.  It  is  probable  he  was 
an  actual  personage  who  lived 
about  1300  b.c.,  and  was  deified 
for  his  special  skill  in  healing. 
His  cult  became  the  most  impor- 
tant in  Eastern  Europe,  and  was 
the  foundation  of  the  medical 
art  in  Ancient  Greece.  The  chief  temples 
dedicated  to  him,  where  the  sick  came  to  be 
healed,  were  at  Epidaurus,  Athens,  Tricca 
and  Cos  : his  symbol  was  the  serpent. 

Artemis.  Greek  deity  and  protectress  of  women  and 
children.  Goddess  of  parturition. 

Amphiaraos.  Son  of  Apollo.  Reverenced  as  a healing 
deity.  Several  temples  were  erected  in  his 
honour.  According  to  tradition  the  sick  came 
from  all  parts  of  Greece  to  sleep  in  his  temples 
and  await  his  revelations.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  regarded  as  a second  Asklepios. 

Machaon.  Son  of  Asklepios  and  described  by  Homer 
as  a military  surgeon. 

10 


Greek  Medicine 


Podalirios.  Son  of  Asklepios  and  described  by  Homer 
as  a physician, 

According  to  Homer  they  were  both  skilled  in 
extracting  weapons,  the  binding  up  of  wounds 
and  in  applying  soothing  drugs. 

Hygieia.  Daughter  of  Asklepios.  Described  as  The 
“ handmaid  of  medicine  and  god- 
dess of  health.”  She  was  wor- 
shipped in  the  Asklepion  temples 
at  Athens  and  Corinth.  She 
assisted  in  the  temples  of  healing 
and  the  feeding  of  the  sacred 
serpents  was  entrusted  to  her. 
Known  to  the  Romans  as  Salus. 
They  erected  a temple  in  her 
honour  at  Rome,  the  priests  of 
which  had  the  privilege  of  offering 
supplications  for  the  health  of  in- 
well as  for  the  well-being  of  the 

Panaceia.  A daughter  of  Asklepios. 

Amynos.  Athenian  god  of  healing.  Helper  and  pro- 
tector of  the  sick. 

Telesphoros.  Associated  with  Asklepios  as  the  genius 
of  convalescence. 

Melampous.  Tradition  states  that  by  means  of  hellebore 
he  cured  the  daughters  of  Proetos,  King  of 
Argus,  when  suffering  from  melancholy  and 
leprosy. 


Roman  and  Scythian  Medicine 
ROMAN. 

291  b.c. — ASsculapius.  The  Roman  god  of  medicine.  Id 
the  year  293  b.c.  a great  epidemic  of  plague 
broke  out  in  Rome.  The  Sibylline  books  were 
consulted  and  Asklepios,  the  Greek  god  of 
medicine,  was  asked  for  aid.  He  was  brought 
as  an  Icon  from  Epidaurus  accompanied  by 
one  of  the  sacred  serpents  and  was  landed  on 
the  Tiberine  Island.  He  is  said  to  have  freed 
the  city  from  the  plague  and  under  the  name 
of  AEsculapius  became  the  chief  Roman  deity 
of  medicine. 

Bona  Dea.  “ The  Good  Goddess.”  Patroness  of  chastity 
and  fruitfulness  in  women.  All  kinds  of  healing 
plants  were  preserved  in  her  sanctuary. 

Minerva  Memor.  Goddess  of  Intellect  and  deity  of 
physicians.  Her  medical  significance  is  sym- 
bolized by  a coiled  snake. 

Dea  Febris.  Deity  associated  with  fever  and  malaria. 

Dea  Salus.  Roman  embodiment  of  Hygieia  and  regarded 
as  a goddess  of  health. 

SCYTHIA. 

ca.  696  b.c.  Abaris.  Priest-physician  of  the  Scythians, 
reverenced  for  his  skill  in  healing. 


ERIN. 

ca.  580  b.c.  Diancecht.  “ God  of  Health  ” and  ancient 
Celtic  father  of  medicine.  His  name  signifies 


12 


Irish  Medicine 


“vehement  skill.”  He  probably  flourished 
about  480  b.c.  According  to  the  “ Annals  of 
Clonmacnoise  ” he  accompanied  the  army  of 
King  Nuada,  and  was  present  at  the  battle 
of  Moytura,  ca.  460  b.c.  At  the  rear  he  pre- 
pared a great  bath  of  healing  herbs,  into 
which  soldiers  wounded  in  the  fight  were 
plunged  and  emerged  healed  and  able  to  fight 
the  enemy  again.  According  to  tradition  he 
was  the  first  to  construct  an  artificial  hand, 
which  he  made  of  silver  for  King  Nuada. 
This  he  did  “ so  skilfully  that  it  moved  in 
all  its  joints  and  was  as  strong  and  supple  as 
a real  one.” 

GREEK  MEDICINE. 

THE  SCHOOL  OF  GYMNAST  PHYSICIANS.  Who 

relied  on  exercise  and  massage  as  therapeutic 
remedies. 

fl.  570  b.c. — Ikkos  of  Tarentum.  A leading  exponent  of 
the  School. 

Herodicos.  Also  called  Prodicos  of  Selymbria,  a gymnast 
physician  who  is  said  frequently  to  have  ordered 
his  patients  suffering  from  fever  to  walk  with- 
out stopping  from  Athens  to  Megara,  a distance 
of  five  and  a half  miles.  He  was  probably 
contemporary  with  Plato  [428-347  b.c. J , 

ca.  600  b.c.— IONIC  SCHOOL. 

639-561  (?)  b.c. — Thales  of  Miletus.  Founder  of  the  Ionic 
School.  Said  to  have  studied  under  the 


J3 


Pythagorean  School  oj  Medicine 

Egyptian  priests.  He  believed  water  to  be  the 
primary  element  from  which  all  matter  was 
derived. 

611-547  b.c. — Anaximander  of  Miletus.  Assumed  undi- 
vided matter  to  be  the  primary  principle  from 
which  heat,  cold,  dryness  and  moisture  deve- 
loped themselves. 

THE  PYTHAGOREAN  SCHOOL. 

570-489  b.c. — Pythagoras.  Philosopher  and  Sage.  He 
roamed  through  Egypt  and  the 
East  in  search  of  knowledge. 
He  introduced  a regular  system 
of  dietetics,  eschewing  meat  and 
instructing  his  pupils  in  the  theory 
of  medicine.  He  paid  great  at- 
tention to  arithmetic  and  its  ap- 
plications to  weights,  measures  and 
the  theory  of  music.  His  disciples 
to  the  number  of  300  formed  them- 
selves into  a brotherhood  with 
secrets,  grades  and  an  oath. 

fl.  500  b.c. — Alcmaeon  of  Crotona.  A pupil  of  Pythago- 
Alkmaion ) ras,  skilled  in  anatomy.  He  is 
said  to  have  discovered  the  optic  nerves  and 
taught  that  the  brain  was  the  seat  of  the  in- 
tellect. The  first  known  Greek  medical  author. 
He  dissected  animals  and  possibly  man.  He 
was  the  first  to  extirpate  the  eyeball.  He  con- 


H 


Pythagorean  School  of  Medicine 

sidered  the  external  causes  of  disease  to  be 
plethora,  inanition  and  fatigue. 

ca.  500  b.c. — Democedes.  Greek  physician  to  Darius, 

King  of  Persia. 

505-453  b c.— Empedocles  of  Agrigentum.  Philosopher 
and  Physiologist.  Taught  that  fire,  air,  water 
and  earth  were  the  four  elements  and  that 
the  human  body  compounded  of  these  four 
elements  was  in  health  when  they  were  in 
equilibrium  and  disease  when  they  were  dis- 
proportioned.  He  perceived  that  atmospheric 
air  was  a substance  distinct  from  space  and 
from  vapour.  He  showed  experimentally  how 
air  could  keep  water  out  of,  or  hold  it  up  in, 
a vessel  or  tube.  When  a pestilence  broke  out 
in  Selinous  due  to  the  stagnant  overflow  of  a 
river,  he  is  said  to  have  stopped  the  disease  by 
restoring  the  current  and  draining  the  land. 
He  supposed  that  emanations  from  external 
bodies  passed  through  pores  into  and  through 
the  organs  of  sense.  By  hygienic  measures  he 
also  fought  the  plague  at  Agrigentum  in  Sicily. 

Philolaos.  A Greek  physician  and  seer  regarded  as  a god 
by  his  contemporaries.  He  was  probably  con- 
temporary with  Socrates,  468-399  b.c.  Taught 
that  the  causes  of  disease  are  bile,  blood  and 
phlegm. 

500 -428  b.c. — Anaxagoras  of  Clazomene.  Contemporary 
of  Empedocles  and  a teacher  of  Pericles.  As 
an  anatomist  he  dissected  the  brain  and  drew 


Pythagorean  School  oj  Medicine 


attention  to  the  lateral  ventricles,  and  as  a 
physician  he  taught  that  many  affections  were 
due  to  the  bile,  of  which  he  recognized  two 
varieties  : the  black  and  the  yellow. 

fl.  $50  b.c. — Archelaos  of  Athens.  A pupil  of  Anaxagoras. 

He  regarded  air  as  the  fundamental  principle 
and  taught  that  it  gave  rise  to  heat  and  cold 
by  condensation  and  rarefaction.  He  was  an 
intermediary  between  the  older  physical  and 
the  newer  ethical  or  Socratic  Greek  philosophy. 

$9$-$0$  b.c. — Democritus  of  Abdera.  Founder  of  the 
Atomistic  Theory.  He  wrote  on  the  anatomy 
of  the  chameleon  and  believed  inflammation  to 
be  the  result  of  an  accumulation  of  phlegm. 

ca.  $70  b.c. — iEgimios  of  Elis.  Author  of  the  first  treatise 
on  the  pulse.  He  attributed  plethora  to  over- 
feeding and  regarded  it  as  a fertile  cause  of 
disease.  He  opposed  venesection  and  drastic 
purgation. 

Hippon.  Carried  on  the  teaching  of  Democritus.  He 
explained  sickness  as  being  due  to  excess  or 
lack  of  moisture. 

430  b.c. — Diogenes  of  Apollonia.  Wrote  several  works 
on  medicine  and  described  the  blood-vessels 
passing  to  the  left  ventricle  of  the  heart.  He 
also  described  the  vena  cava  with  its  main 
branches.  He  was  an  advocate  of  tffenesection 
and  an  observer  of  the  tongue  and  pulse  in 
disease.  Taught  that  air  endued  with  reason 

16 


Cnidian  School  of  Medicine 

was  the  origin  of  bodily  and  mental  life,  air 
being  the  vehicle  of  sense  appreciation. 

430-425  b.c. — Plague  of  Athens. 

ca.  360  b.c. — Syennsis  the  Cypriote.  Studied  the  blood- 
vessels and  wrote  on  the  origin  of  the  veins. 

THE  SCHOOL  OF  CNIDOS.  Flourished  as  an  offshoot 
of  the  Asclepiad  School.  It  was  at  first  clinical 
and  physiological  rather  than  anatomical  but 
degenerated  into  speculation,  phlegm  and  bile 
playing  the  chief  part.  Obstetrics  and  gynaeco- 
logy were  amongst  the  subjects  taught. 

fl.  450  b.c. — Euryphon  of  Cnidos.  Lived  a little  before 
Hippocrates.  He  is  said  to  have  compiled  the 
Cnidian  sentences.  He  explained  pleurisy  as 
an  affection  of  the  lung  and  treated  phthisis 
with  human  and  asses’  milk.  He  knew  the 
difference  between  the  arteries  and  veins  and 
that  the  former  contained  blood. 

fl.  400  b.c. — Ctesias  of  Cnidos.  Was  a contemporary 
of  Xenophon  and  lived  at  the  Persian  Court. 
It  was  partly  through  his  writings  that  Eastern 
medicine  became  known  in  Greece. 

fl.  400  b.c. — Polycreitos  of  Mende.  Was  living  at  the 
Persian  Court  at  the  same  time  as  Ctesias. 

408-355  b.c — Euddxos  of  Cnidos.  A friend  of  Chry- 
sippos.  He  defended  the  opinions  of  Plato. 
Both  Eudoxos  and  Chrysippos,  who  was  a 
surgeon,  travelled  through  Egypt  to  gather 


b 


i7 


Sicilian  School  of  Medicine 

medical  knowledge  from  the  priests.  They 
were  both  pupils  of  Philistion  of  Locris. 

300  b.c. — Chrysippos.  Son  of  Chrysippos.  Was  physi- 
cian to  the  Egyptian  King  Ptolemy.  Observed 
fever  by  means  of  the  pulse. 

Aristogenes  of  Cnidos.  Physician  to  the  Macedonian 
King  Antigonus  Gonatas  (283-240  b.c.).  He 
is  said  to  have  been  a pupil  of  the  younger 
Chrysippos. 

THE  SICILIAN  SCHOOL.  Laid  especial  stress  on  diet, 
a legacy  from  the  teaching  of  Pythagoras.  The 
teaching  of  the  School  was  essentially  anato- 
mical and  physiological  and  its  traditions  were 
carried  on  and  improved  by  the  Hippocratic  or 
Coan  School. 

400  b.c. — Akron  of  Agrigentum.  Physician  and  pupil  of 
Alcmaeon.  He  is  said  to  have  arrested  the 
great  plague  which  ravaged  Athens  about 
473  B.c.  He  wrote  in  Doric  a treatise  on 
dietetics. 

Pausanias.  A Sicilian  physician,  said  to  have  been  a 
pupil  of  Empedocles  who  dedicated  to  him  his 
poem  on  Nature. 

fl.  370  b.c. —Philistion  of  Locris.  A contemporary  of 
Plato  and  the  most  distinguished  of  the  Sicilian 
School.  He  wrote  on  surgery,  pharmacology 
and  dietetics,  lived  for  a time  in  Athens  and 
indirectly  paved  the  way  for  the  amalgamation 

18 


Hippocratic  School  of  Medicine 

of  the  Sicilian  with  the  Coan  and  Cnidian 
teaching. 


THE  HIPPOCRATIC  OR  COAN  SCHOOL.  The  second 
great  offshoot  of  the  Asclepiads.  It  was  char- 
acterized by  the  value  it  laid  upon  prognosis 
in  disease,  and  coincided  with  the  highest  de- 
velopment of  Greek  culture. 

560-377  b.c. — Hippocrates.  Son  of  the  Asclepiad  Hera- 
cleides.  Called  “the  Father  of 
Medicine.”  He  was  the  first  to 
free  medicine  from  philosophic 
delusions  and  superstitions  and 
to  establish  its  fundamental  prin- 
ciples upon  a solid  and  rational 
basis.  He  propounded  aphorisms 
for  the  cure  of  disease  and  called 
attention  to  the  value  of  diet  and 
exercise.  He  prescribed  fumiga- 
tions, gargles,  oils,  ointments, 
poultices  and  collyria.  The 
Hippocratic  collections  have  been  repeatedly 
printed  and  translated. 

THE  DOGMATIC  SCHOOL.  Infused  speculation  into  the 
true  Hippocratic  method.  The  teaching  was 
derived  partly  from  the  Sicilian  and  partly 
from  the  Hippocratic  Schools. 

fl.  388  b.c. — Euenor  of  Argos.  A Dogmatist  physician 
who  practised  at  Athens  with  such  success 


i9 


Dogmatic  School  of  Medicine 

that  he  was  rewarded  for  his  services  to  the 
State.  He  was  distinguished  for  his  knowledge 
of  obstetrics  and  diseases  of  the  eye. 

380  b.c. — Thessalos  and  Dracon.  Sons  of  Hippocrates, 
were  amongst  the  founders  of  this  School. 
They  applied  mystical  speculations  to  the  study 
of  medicine  and  believed  that  “ where  observa- 
tion failed  Reason  might  surprise.” 

Polybos.  A son  - in  - law  of  Hippocrates.  Writings 
ascribed  to  him  were  printed  at  Basle  in  1544 
and  at  Venice  in  1545. 

370  b.c. — Dioxippos  of  Cos,  or  Dexippus.  Was  a pupil 
of  Hippocrates.  He  is  said  to  have  written 
two  books  on  prognosis. 

Apollonios.  A pupil  of  Hippocrates,  was  at  the  head 
of  the  series  of  physicians  who  laid  emphasis 
upon  theory  as  opposed  to  observation,  thus 
giving  to  Greek  medicine  in  the  fourth  century 
b.c.  its  speculative  colouring. 

350  b.c. — Dioclesion.  A Greek  physician  who  is  said 
to  have  distinguished  between  pleurisy  and 
pneumonia. 

350  b.c. — Diokles  of  Euboea.  Son  of  Archidamus,  the 
physician.  He  wrote  several  medical  works, 
lived  for  some  time  in  Athens,  and  was  con- 
sidered second  only  to  Hippocrates  himself. 

ca.  350  b.c. — Diokles  of  Carystos.  The  last  of  the 
Hippocratic  physicians  and  the  first  to  write 
in  Attic  Greek.  He  was  a believer  in  the 


20 


Dogmatic  School  of  Medicine 

value  of  regulation  of  diet,  exercises  and  baths 
and  wrote  a treatise  on  hygiene.  He  urged 
temperance  in  all  things,  and  the  avoidance  of 
excess.  He  is  said  to  have  been  an  anatomist 
and  embryologist  and  was  the  discoverer  of  the 
“ Punctum  Saliens.”  He  wrote  the  first  book 
on  anatomy  describing  the  lungs,  heart,  gall 
bladder,  ileo-caecal  valve,  ureters,  ovaries  and 
tubes. 

fi.  340-320  b.c. — Praxagoras  of  Cos.  The  teacher  of 
Herophilus.  He  lived  shortly  after  Hippocrates 
and  was  the  first  ro  use  the  word  “ pulse”  in 
its  modern  sense.  He  distinguished  between 
the  arteries  and  the  veins  but  taught  that  the 
arteries  originated  in  the  lungs  and  ended  in 
the  nerves.  He  wrote  on  the  diagnosis  of  acute 
diseases  and  operated  to  cure  intussusception. 

340  b.c. — Mnesitheos  of  Athens.  A pupil  of  Praxagoras. 

He  wrote  on  systematic  medicine  and  dietetics. 

Xenophon  of  Cos,  Pleistonikos,  Philotimos.  All  dogma- 
tists and  pupils  of  Praxagoras. 

Dieuches.  A physician  at  Athens.  He  is  quoted  several 
times  by  Pliny,  but  only  fragments  of  his 
writings  are  now  extant. 

Numenios  of  Heraklea.  A pupil  of  Dieuches.  A 
dogmatist.  He  wrote  a poem  on  fishing. 

THE  PERIPATETIC  SCHOOL. 

430-347  b.c. — Plato.  The  “ myriad  minded  ” Greek 
philospher  and  friend  of  Socrates.  Taught  that 


21 


Peripatetic  School  of  Medicine 

the  heart  was  the  organ  which  set  the  blood  in 
motion  and  was  amongst  the  first  to  call  the 
great  artery  of  the  body  “ the  Aorta.” 

384-322  b.c.— Aristotle,  the  Stagirite.  So  called  because 
he  was  born  at  Stageira,  a Greek  colony  near 
the  frontiers  of  Macedonia  and  Mount  Athos. 
Founder  of  the  Peripatetic  School.  The  pupil 
of  Plato,  student,  reader,  lecturer  and  writer. 
A great  naturalist  as  well  as  philosopher. 
Dante  speaks  of  him  as  “ the  master  of  all  that 
know.”  Aristotelian  anatomy  and  physiology 
show  an  intimate  blending  of  speculation  and 
empiricism. 

370  285  b.c. — Theophrastos.  Called  “the  Father  of 
Botany.”  Born  at  Eresos  in  Lesbos.  He  was 
a pupil  of  Plato  at  Athens,  at  whose  death  he 
became  a pupil  of  Aristotle  to  whom  he  was 
deeply  attached.  In  his  work  “ Enquiry  into 
Plants  ” he  describes  five  hundred  specimens. 
He  also  wrote  on  mineralogy.  His  works  were 
translated  into  English  by  John  Goodyer  in 
1621,  but  the  version  remains  in  manuscript 
in  the  Library  of  Magdalen  College,  Oxford. 
An  English  translation  by  Sir  Arthur  Hort, 
Bart.,  M.A.,  was  published  in  1916. 

Metrddoros  of  Athens.  Son-in-law  of  Aristotle,  pupil  of 
Chrysipposof  Cnidos,  instructor  of  Erasistratus 
and  teacher  of  medicine  at  the  Lyceum. 

290  b.c.— Eudemos.  He  studied  the  anatomy  of  the 
bones,  nerves  and  glands,  and  demonstrated 


22 


Peripatetic  School  of  Medicine 

the  abdominal  system  of  glands  and  the  meta- 
carpal bones  of  the  fingers  and  toes.  He  must 
not  be  confused  with  Eudemos  of  Rhodes,  the 
editor  of  and  commentator  on  the  writings  of 
Aristotle.  Theophrastos  and  Eudemos,  both 
pupils  of  Aristotle,  were  alone  esteemed  worthy 
by  the  Peripatetic  School  to  take  the  place  of 
their  master. 

280  b.c. — Stratdn  of  Lampsacos.  The  son  of  Arcesilaos, 
and  the  tutor  of  Ptolemaios  Philadelphos.  A 
distinguished  gynaecologist.  He  succeeded 
Theophrastos  in  288  b.c.  as  head  of  the 
Peripatetic  School.  He  is  said  to  have  de- 
scribed Elephantiasis.  He  opposed  vene- 
section. 

300  b.c. — Philaretos.  A physician  of  Alexandria.  He 
belonged  to  the  Peripatetic  School  of  medicine. 
His  treatises  on  the  pulse,  urine  and  excreta 
have  twice  been  published  in  Latin  translations. 

Clearchos  of  Soloi-  A physician  of  the  Peripatetic  School 
and  a pupil  of  Aristotle.  He  wrote  on  Osteo- 
logy and  Biography. 

Callisthenes  of  Olynthos.  Cousin  and  pupil  of  Aristotle. 
Physician  to  Alexander  the  Great. 

Menon.  A physician  of  the  Peripatetic  School  who  wrote 
an  historical  compilation  of  his  art.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Aristotle. 

340-260  b.c. — Zenon  the  Stoio.  He  advocated  a “natural” 
mode  of  life  as  the  chief  means  of  happiness. 


23 


Alexandrian  School  of  Medicine 

He  taught  at  Athens  in  the  porch  adorned 
with  the  paintings  of  Polygnotus  — the  Stoa 
Poikile — and  his  school  thus  gained  the  name 
of  Stoics.  He  was  more  philosopher  than 
physician. 

THE  ALEXANDRIAN  SCHOOL  OF  MEDICINE  The 

great  Anatomical  School. 

ca.  300  b.c. — Herophilos  of  Chalcedon.  Born  at  Chal- 
cedon.  A pupil  of  Praxagoras  and  Chrysippos. 
The  father  of  systematic  anatomical  investiga- 
tion. He  was  the  first  to  distinguish  between 
the  two  coats  of  the  eye,  and  probably  the  first 
to  describe  the  lens.  He  was  one  of  the  early 
gynaecologists.  He  is  said  to  have  noted  a 
disease  which  he  called  “ palsy  of  the  heart,” 
possibly  angina  pectoris.  His  name  is  still 
remembered  in  anatomy  by  the  term  “ Torcula 
Herophili.”  He  practised  bandaging  of  the 
limbs  in  or  against  haemorrhage,  and  was  the 
great  investigator  of  the  brain.  He  distin- 
guished between  the  motor  and  sensory  nerves. 

ca.  300  b.c. — Apollodorus  of  Alexandria.  Greek  botanist 
and  writer  on  poisons. 

fl.  295  b.c. — Erasistratos  of  Julis.  Anatomist  and 
surgeon.  He  looked  upon  disease  as  a distur- 
bance of  physiological  function  and  had  gained 
a correct  knowledge  of  the  action  of  the  valves 
of  the  heart.  He  was  opposed  to  bleeding  and 
the  use  of  purgatives,  advocating  in  their  place 


24 


Alexandrian  School  of  Medicine 

emetics  and  enemata,  and  is  said  to  have 
received  ^”24,375  for  restoring  to  health 
Antiochus,  the  eldest  son  of  Seleuchus  Nicator, 
King  of  Syria,  in  b.c.  294. 

283-247  b.c. — Ammonios  Lithotomus.  A surgeon  of 
Alexandria  who  first  performed  lithotrity. 

250  b.c. — Demetrius  of  Apameia.  A disciple  of  Hero- 
philos.  Clinical  observer  and  obstetrician. 

Apollophanes  of  Seleucia.  Physician  to  Antiochus  the 
Great  [b.c.  223-187].  He  wrote  about  venom- 
ous animals. 

ca.  250  b.c. — Apollonios  of  Memphis.  Wrote  on  the 
pulse,  surgery  and  diseases  of  the  eye. 

132  b.c.  The  Alexandrian  School  became  divided  into: — 

(a)  THE  HEROPHILAN  SCHOOL.  Founded  near 
Laodicea,  which  lasted  until  the  second 
century  a.d. 

The  chief  physicians  of  the  Herophilan  School 
were  : — . I 

50,  b.c. — Zeuxis.  The  first  head  of  the  Herophilan 
School.  He  does  not  appear  to  be  Zeuxis 
of  Tarentum  who  belonged  to  the  Empiric 
School,  and  was  one  of  the  earliest  commen- 
tators on  the  Hippocratic  writings.  Zeuxis 
was  succeded  by 

ca.  1 a.d. —Alexander  Philalethes.  Head  of  the  Phry- 
gian School  of  Medicine  near  Laodicea.  He 
wrote  on  the  pulse  and  on  gynaecology. 


25 


Herophilan  Schuol  of  Medicine 

Bakcheios  of  Tanagra.  He  elaborated  the  lore  of  the 
pulse. 

ca.  30  b.c. — Heracleides  of  Erythrea.  Commentator  on 
the  “ Epidemic  diseases”  of  Hippocrates. 

Andreas  of  Carystos.  Physician  to  Ptolemy  Philopator. 

He  wrote  on  toxicology  and  was  probably  the 
first  to  write  on  rabies. 

ca.  30  b.c. — Apollonios  Mus.  He  wrote  at  least  twenty- 
nine  books  on  the  teachings  of  Herophilos. 
He  was  a pupil  of  Alexander  Philalethes  and 
was  distinguished  as  a pharmacologist. 

ca.  20  b.c.  — Meges.  A surgeon,  born  at  Sidon  in  Phoenicia, 
who  observed  tumours  of  the  breast  and  forward 
dislocation  of  the  knee-joint,  and  invented  in- 
struments for  lithotomy.  He  practised  at  Rome. 

Demosthenes  of  Massilia  (Marseilles).  He  is  quoted  by 
Galen  for  the  treatment  of  malignant  pustule. 
Fragments  of  his  writings  have  been  printed. 

Demosthenes  the  Oculist.  He  wrote  a “ liber  ophthal- 
micus” which  was  greatly  esteemed.  He  is 
said  to  have  been  also  the  author  of  a work 
on  paediatrics  and  another  on  the  pulse.  Both 
physicians  who  bore  the  name  of  Demosthenes 
were  also  called  Philalethes. 

50  a.d. — Aristoxenos.  A pupil  of  Alexander  Philalethes. 

He  wrote  several  books  on  the  teachings  of 
Herophilos. 

Gaius  of  Neapolis.  A gynaecologist. 


26 


Erasistratan  School  of  Medicine 

(b)  THE  ERASISTRATAN  SCHOOL.  Founded 
in  Smyrna  132  B.c.  and  lasted  well  into  the 
second  century  a.d. 

fl.  60  a.d. — Hikesios  of  Smyrna— “A  physician  of  no 
mean  authority.”  Is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  head  of  the  School.  He  wrote  on  drugs 
and  diet.  Two  medals  were  struck  in  his 
honour  by  the  people  of  Syracuse. 

ca.  70  a.d. — Menodorus.  A friend  of  Hikesios  and  a 
writer  on  drugs. 

fl.  60  a.d. — Andromachos  the  Elder.  The  reviser  of 
a formula  for  a universal  remedy  and  antidote 
to  poisons  called  “ Theriaca  ” or  “ Galene  ” 
composed  of  more  than  sixty-one  ingredients, 
which  is  still  used  in  some  parts  of  Europe. 
He  wrote  the  formula  in  a Greek  elegiac  poem 
which  has  been  printed  in  the  original  and  in 
two  Latin  translations.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  Archiater,  and  the  Physician  in 
Ordinary  to  Nero. 

150  a.d. — Ptolemaios  of  Alexandria.  Wrote  on  Optics. 

A follower  of  Erasistratus. 

fl.  165  a.d. — Marcianus,  or  Martialis.  A distinguished 
anatomist  at  Rome.  Galen  says  he  was  an 
envious  and  quarrelsome  person. 

285  b.c.  THE  EMPIRIC  SCHOOL.  Arose  in  Alexandria 
with  the  teaching  that  medicine  was  essentially 
clinical  and  that  the  cure  of  the  patient  should 


27 


Empiric  School  of  Medicine 

be  its  object.  Experience,  therefore,  was  the 
only  source  of  medical  skill.  The  more  notable 
Empirics  were  : — 

ca.  250  b.c. — Phillnos  of  Cos.  A pupil  of  Herophilus. 

He  wrote  a commentary  on  the  Hippocratic 
writings.  A parallel  has  been  drawn  between 
Philinos  and  Hahnemann. 

ca.  250  b.c. — Zeuxis  the  Elder. — One  of  the  earliest  com- 
mentators on  Hippocrates. 

ca  220  b.c.— Serapion  of  Alexandria.  He  wrote  a book 
on  Treatment  and  was  antagonistic  to  the 
Hippocratic  teaching. 

219  b.c. — Archagathos.  The  son  of  Lysanias.  A Pelo- 
ponnesian surgeon  who  settled  in  Rome  and  is 
said  to  have  been  the  first  person  who  made 
medicine  a distinct  profession  in  that  city.  He 
was  honourably  received  at  first.  The  Jus 
Quiritium,  or  lower  rank  of  citizenship,  was 
conferred  upon  him  and  his  surgery  was  pur- 
chased at  the  expense  of  the  State. 

fl.  200  b.c. — Apollonios  the  Empiric.  Was  probably  the 

son  of  Apollonios  of  Antioch  who  was  also  an 
Empiric.  He  wrote  in  answer  to  Zeno’s  book 
on  the  Hippocratic  “characters”  or  “marks” 
at  the  end  of  the  third  book  of  the  Epidemics. 

ca.  180  b.c.  - Glaucias  of  Taros.  One  of  the  earliest 
commentators  on  the  whole  of  the  Hippocratic 
writings.  He  also  wrote  an  alphabetical  glos- 
sary on  the  difficult  words  in  Hippocrates. 

28 


Empiric  School  oj  Medicine 

Heracleides  of  Tarentum.  Said  to  have  been  a pupil  of 
Glaucias.  He  was  called  the  Prince  of  the 
Empirics  and  was  skilled  both  in  surgery  and 
pharmacy. 

185-135  b.c. — Nicander  of  Colophon.  Was  born  at  Claros 
in  Ionia.  He  wrote  a thousand  hexameters  on 
Theriaca,  treating  of  venomous  animals  and  the 
wounds  inflicted  by  them,  and  six  hundred  lines 
on  Alexipharmaca,  besides  many  other  poems. 
The  two  medical  poems  have  been  printed 
several  times.  He  was  the  first  writer  to  men- 
tion the  leech  in  medicine. 

ca.  180-160  b.c. — Apollonios  Biblas,  or  the  Bookworm. 

He  answered  Zeno’s  reply  to  the  book  of 
Apollonios  the  Empiric. 

200-138  b.c. — Attalos  II.  Surnamed  Philadelphos.  King 
of  Pergamos.  Gave  great  encouragement  to 
the  liberal  arts  and  sciences  and  is  said  to  have 
studied  the  properties  of  medicines  and  poisons. 

132-63  b.c. — Mithridates  VI.  Surnamed  Eupator.  '“The 
Great  King  of  Pontus.”  The  enemy  of  Rome 
who  was  conquered  by  Pompey.  He  was  of 
the  Empiric  School  and  is  famous  for  his  study 
of  poisons.  He  is  said  personally  to  have  carried 
out  many  experiments  with  poisons  and  their 
antidotes  and  to  have  rendered  himself  immune 
from  poisoning  by  swallowing  small  doses  of 
poisonous  substances  daily,  including  the  blood 
of  ducks  fed  upon  toxic  principles.  His  name  is 
preserved  in  “ Mithridatum,”  a universal  anti- 


29 


Methodic  School  of  Medicine 

dote,  which  he  professed  to  devise,  and  which 
was  modified  by  Andromachus,  physician  to  the 
Emperor  Nero.  It  became  known  as  “ Mithri- 
date  ” or  “ Theriaca  ” and  was  prepared  from 
many  formulae,  containing  a large  number  of 
ingredients,  up  to  the  end  of  the  18th  century, 
ca.  100-80  b.c. — Zopyros.  A surgeon  of  Alexandria.  He 
classified  drugs  according  to  their  action  and 
claimed  to  have  discovered  a universal  antidote, 
“ Ambrosia.” 

100  b.c, — Asclepiades  of  Bithynia.  Visited  Rome  first 
as  a rhetorician  and  failing  in  this  turned  his 
attention  to  medicine.  Being  something  of  a 
charlatan  he  rejected  the  doctrines  of  Hippo- 
crates and  his  successors.  He  is  said  to  have 
been  the  first  to  classify  diseases  into  Acute  and 
Chronic.  As  a follower  of  Epicurus  he  held 
that  acute  diseases  were  due  to  constriction  of 
the  pores  and  chronic  to  their  relaxation, 
ca.  60  b.c. — Apollonios  Citiensis.  A pupil  of  Zopyros. 

Author  of  a commentary  on  Hippocrates’  work 
on  joints  and  of  a work  on  epilepsy, 
ca.  60  b.c. — Pdseidonios.  A pupil  of  Zopyros,  who  wrote 
on  the  bubonic  or  true  plague. 

60  b.c. — METHODIC  SCHOOL.  Founded  by  Themison. 

This  School  afterwards  gave  rise  to  the  Eclec- 
tic and  the  Pneumatic  Schools.  The  Metho- 
dists compared  one  disease  with  another  in 
search  of  common  characteristics.  They  under- 


30 


Pneumatic  School  of  Medicine 

took  the  early  treatment  of  acute  disease  by 
expectant  treatment  and  elaborated  a systematic 
therapy  of  particular  days  and  cycles, 
ca.  123-43  b.c. — Themisdn  A pupil  of  Asclepiades  of 
Bithynia  and  a native  of  Laodicea  in  Syria. 
He  endeavoured  to  classify  disease  and  based 
treatment  on  set  rules.  Founded  the  Methodic 
School.  He  used  leeches  and  added  many  com- 
pound medicines  to  the  materia  medica  and  also 
wrote  on  gynaecology. 

25  b.c.-50  (?)  a.d. — Celsus  (Aurelius  Cornelius).  Said  to 

have  been  born  in  Rome.  Author  of  an  im- 
portant work  on  medicine  in  eight  books.  He 
was  the  first  writer  to  deal  professedly  with 
surgery  and  his  pharmacy  shows  that  the  art  had 
made  considerable  advances.  His  book  remained 
a textbook  until  the  middle  of  the  last  century 
and  was  repeatedly  translated  into  the  chief 
European  languages.  He  gives  directions  for 
lithotomy  by  the  apparatus  minor.  The  first 
edition  of  his  “De  Re  Medicina  ” was  printed 
at  Florence  1478. 

26  a.d. — Damocrates.  Surnamed  Servilius.  A Greek 

physician  practising  at  Rome : originator  of 

the  Damocratic  Confection.  He  wrote  several 
pharmaceutical  works  in  Greek  Iambics. 

THE  PNEUMATIC  SCHOOL  OF  MEDICINE.  Was 

essentially  physiological.  It  taught  that  health 
depended  on  a normal  condition  of  the  pneuma 


3i 


Pneumatic  School  of  Medicine 

or  vital  spirit  and  is  promoted  by  its  tension, 
which  was  estimated  by  the  pulse.  Sickness 
was  the  result  of  disorder  of  the  vital  spirits. 

The  chief  teachers  of  the  Pneumatic  School  were  : — 

30-90  a.d. — Aretaios.  “ The  Incomparable  Aretaeus.” 

Cappadocian  anatomist  and  phy- 
sician. Expounder  of  the  Doc- 
trine of  the  Pneumatic  cult.  He 
wrote  a general  treatise  on  disease 
in  Ionic  Greek.  His  works  have 
often  been  printed  and  are  valu- 
able for  their  clinical  details  and 
power  of  diagnosis.  He  distin- 
guished between  the  conveyance 
of  a disease  by  contact  and  at 
a distance.  He  remarks  on  the 
reaction  between  body  and  mind. 

30  a.d. — Tiberius  Claudius  Menecrates  of  Zeophleta. 

Physician  in  ordinary  to  the  Emperor  Tiberius 
and  the  originator  of  diachylon  plaster.  He 
wrote  a treatise  on  pharmacology  entitled 
“ Autocrator  Hologrammatos  ” which  was 
dedicated  to  the  Emperor.  The  formula  for 
diachylon  and  the  directions  for  compounding 
it  were  put  into  iambic  verse  by  Servilius 
Damocrates. 

47  a.d.— Scribonius  Largus.  Author  of  a medical  for- 
mulary which  has  been  printed  several  times. 
First  accurately  described  the  method  of  ob- 


32 


Pneumatic  School  oj  Medicine 

taining  opium.  Was  physician  to  the  Emperor 
Claudius  and  perhaps  came  with  him  to  Britain. 

ca.  40-90  a.d.— Pedanius  Dioscorides  of  Anazaba  in 
Silesia.  The  Father  of  Phar- 
macy. Famous  for  his  great 
work  “ In  re  Materia  Medica.” 
An  independent  investigator  and 
writer  upon  the  medicines  of  his 
time.  He  travelled  extensively 
in  Italy,  Gaul,  Spain,  Germany 
and  Greece.  He  describes  600 
plants.  The  earliest  manuscript 
of  his  work  extant  is  that  known 
as  the  “ Manuscript  Anicia,”  VI 
century,  now  in  the  Royal  Library 
It  was  translated  into  Latin  in  the 
XVI  century  and  continued  to  be  a popular 
work  on  the  subject  for  centuries.  There  is  an 
unpublished  interlinear  translation  into  English 
in  the  Magdalen  College  Library  at  Oxford.  It 
was  made  by  John  Goodyer  1652-1655. 

60  a.d.— Thessalus  of  Tralles.  A contemporary  of  the 
Emperor  Nero.  He  termed  himself  the  “ Van- 
quisher of  the  Physicians.”  A pupil  of  Themi- 
son  and  a born  charlatan.  He  taught,  however, 
at  the  bedside. 

ca.  69  a.d. — Athenaius  of  Attaleia.  He  practised  in 
Rome  at  the  time  of  Claudius  the  Emperor. 
He  operated  for  cancer  of  the  breast  and  uterus 


c 


33 


Pneumatic  School  of  Medicine 

and  was  skilled  in  controlling  haemorrhage. 
He  is  said  to  have  differentiated  measles.  He 
published  a work  on  medicine  in  thirty  volumes 
and  laid  great  stress  on  the  development  of  the 
body  as  well  as  of  the  mind  in  educating  the 
young.  He  taught  that  women  should  learn 
chiefly  domestic  economy  and  should  actually 
knead,  bake,  make  the  beds  and  distribute  the 
household  supplies,  since  bodily  movement 
improves  the  appetite  and  produces  a healthy 
complexion. 

ca.  75  a.d. — Magnus.  A pneumatist  who  lived  about  the 
same  time  as  Archigenes  and  after  that  of 
Themison,  for  he  wrote  a treatise  in  Greek  in 
three  volumes  on  things  discovered  since  the 
time  of  Themison. 

ca.  80  a.d. — Theodorus.  A pupil  of  Athenaios.  He  is 
quoted  by  Pliny. 

Appollonios  the  Pneumatist.  He  was  an  advocate  of 
venesection  and  believed  that  in  plethora  the 
permeation  of  the  periphery  by  the  animal  spirit 
was  retarded. 

ca.  100  A.D. — Rufus  of  Ephesus.  Lived  in  the  reign  of 
Trajan.  Physician  and  anatomist.  Regarded 
the  heart  as  the  seat  of  life  and  the  organ  of 
pulsation.  He  wrote  an  anatomical  treatise 
upon  the  eye  and  described  the  oviduct  in  the 
sheep.  He  introduced  a “ Hiera  ” containing 
colocynth  into  the  materia  medica,  which  is 


34 


Eclectic  School  of  Medicine 

still  sold  by  pharmacists  in  many  parts  and  has 
survived  to  the  present  day  in  the  form  of 
Pit.  Rufi. 

THE  ECLECTIC  SCHOOL  OF  MEDICINE.  Developed 
from  the  Pneumatic  School  by  bringing  its 
tenets  into  harmony  with  the  best  of  Empiric 
and  Methodic  medicine.  It  flourished  in  Rome 
under  the  first  Emperors  and  did  much  for  the 
development  of  surgery. 

The  chief  Eclectics  were  : — 

10  a.d. — Antonius  Musa.  He  urged  the  importance  of 
the  study  of  the  normal  conditions  and  the 
earliest  deviations  from  health.  He  prescribed 
periodic  abstinence  and  regular  baths.  He  was 
physician  to  the  Emperor  Augustus  and  cured 
him  of  a disorder  of  the  liver  by  means  of  cold 
bathing  and  cooling  drinks,  for  which  service 
he  was  awarded  a statue  near  that  of  Htsculapius 
in  Rome.  He  was  also  physician  to  Horace. 

90  a.d. — Claudius  Agathlnos  of  Sparta.  Founder  of  the 
Eclectic,  or  as  he  called  it  the  Episynthetic 
School.  He  was  a pupil  of  Athenaius  and 
endeavoured  to  consolidate  the  doctrines  of  the 
Empirics  and  Methodists.  He  wrote  on  the 
pulse  and  taught  that  cold  was  preferable  to 
hot  bathing.  He  is  also  said  to  have  deter- 
mined the  action  of  hellebore  by  experiments 
on  dogs. 


35 


Eclectic  School  of  Medicine 

48-117  a.d. — Archigenes  of  Apameia.  The  most  dis- 
tinguished pupil  of  Agathinos,  whose  life  he  is 
said  to  have  saved  when  he  was  delirious  from 
want  of  sleep.  He  lived  in  Rome  under  the 
Emperor  Trajan.  Galen  said  that  he  was 
inspired  by  his  writings.  As  a physician  he 
raised  the  study  of  the  pulse  to  its  highest  point 
and  described  diphtheria  ; as  a practical  surgeon 
he  ligatured  bleeding  vessels  and  operated  for 
cancer  of  the  breast.  He  was  also  renowned 
as  a pharmacologist  and  is  mentioned  by 
Juvenal. 

ca.  50  a.d. — Claudius  Philoxenos.  An  Egyptian  surgeon 
who  wrote  several  valuable  treatises  on  surgery. 

ca.  100  a. d.— Herodotus.  A pupil  of  Agathinos  who 
practised  in  Rome.  Some  fragments  of  his 
work  have  been  printed. 

ca.  200. — Leonidas  of  Alexandria.  An  important  surgeon 
of  his  time  who  modelled  himself  on  Philoxenos. 
He  improved  the  methods  of  amputation, 
operated  for  piles,  studied  injuries  of  the  head 
and  the  treatment  of  tumours  and  hernia.  He 
was  familiar  with  the  fact  that  Filaria  meditunsis 
was  endemic  in  India  and  Ethiopia. 

20  a.d. — Herennius  Philo  of  Tarsus.  The  inventor  of 
“ Philonium,”  a remedy  greatly  esteemed  for  a 
peculiar  form  of  colic  common  in  Rome,  in 
his  time.  He  also  originated  a confection  of 
opium,  which  remained  in  our  Pharmacopoeias 

36 


Eclectic  School  of  Medicine 

till  1867.  Until  1746  it  was  called  Philonium 
Romanum,  but  in  that  year  the  name  was 
changed  in  the  London  Pharmacopoeia  to 
Philonium  Londinense. 

ca.  75  a.d. — Heliodorus.  A surgeon  at  Rome  who  was 
contemporary  with  Juvenal.  Some  fragments 
of  his  writings  were  printed  in  1754.  He 
operated  for  hernia  and  performed  internal 
urethrotomy. 

ca.  100  a.d.  — Marinus.  Anatomist  and  discoverer  of  the 
inferior  laryngeal  nerves  and  the  mesenteric 
glands.  Said  to  have  discovered  the  vagus,  his 
“ 6th  ” nerve.  Author  of  a treatise  on  the 
muscles  which  was  used  freely  by  Galen  who 
described  Marinus  as  the  restorer  of  anatomy. 

fl.  98-117  a.d. — Soranus  of  Ephesus.  Anatomist,  physician 
and  obstetrician.  Renowned  for  his  sagacity. 
Historian  of  Hippocrates.  In  him  the  Methodic 
School  attained  its  greatest  height  for  he  based 
his  Methodism  upon  Epicureanism  and  so  com- 
bated mysticism.  His  obstetrical  and  gynae- 
cological work  was  of  a very  high  standard  and 
his  ideas  dominated  this  branch  of  the  pro- 
fession until  modern  times.  A few  of  his 
writings  have  been  printed.  Paulus  ^Egineta 
quotes  him  as  the  earliest  Greek  physician  to 
describe  the  Guinea-worm. 

125  a.d. —Plague  of  Orosius. 


37 


Eclectic  School  of  Medicine 

ca.  130  a.d. — Cassius  the  Iatrosophist,  or  Cassius  Felix. 

Wrote  in  Greek  on  eighty-four  questions  con- 
cerning medical  and  physical  subjects  with 
their  solutions.  A Latin  version  of  his  work 
was  published  in  447  and  with  this  book  ends 
the  medical  literature  of  Western  Rome.  An 
iatrosophist  was  one  who  both  taught  and 
practised  medicine. 

130  200 (?)— Claudius  Galen.  “The  Prince  of  Physicians.” 
Born  at  Pergamos  where  there 
was  a great  temple  to  Asklepios. 
He  revived  the  Hippocratic  sys- 
tem of  medicine,  to  which  he 
added  principles  founded  on  his 
own  observations.  He  contri- 
buted largely  to  the  existing 
knowledge  of  anatomy  and  phy- 
siology, human  as  well  as  com- 
parative. He  knew  the  effects  of 
dividing  one  half  and  the  whole  of 
the  spinal  cord,  and  was  the  first 
to  describe  the  art  of  obtaining  the  virtues 
of  flowers  and  plants  by  distillation.  He  wrote 
in  Greek  and  was  an  advocate  of  bleeding 
in  properly  selected  cases.  His  formula  for 
“Theriaca,”  a preparation  containing  opium, 
was  in  use  until  quite  recent  times.  He 
practised  sometimes  in  Rome  and  sometimes 
in  Asia,  and  had  a large  following  of  pupils  as 
well  as  patients.  His  treatise  “ De  methodo 


Eclectic  School  of  Medicine 

medendi,”  was  a students’  textbook  in  England 
during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  The  first  edition 
of  his  “ Opera  ” was  printed  at  Venice  in  1490. 

ca.  230  (?).— Antyllus.  The  surgeon  who  first  described 
in  detail  the  operation  for  tracheotomy.  He 
lived  between  the  time  of  Galen  and  Ori- 
basius,  and  his  name  is  still  remembered  in 
connection  with  the  treatment  of  aneurysm  by 
double  ligature  and  excision,  as  well  as  for 
his  method  of  cataract  extraction.  He  also 
described  plastic  operations. 

164-180. — Plague  of  Antonius. 

ca.  200. — Alexander  Aphrodisiensis.  He  was  of  the 

Peripatetic  School,  a native  of  Aphrodisias  in 
Caria.  The  most  celebrated  of  the  com- 
mentators on  Aristotle.  He  did  much  to  en- 
courage the  accurate  study  of  Aristotle.  Medical 
treatises  have  been  assigned  to  him,  but  it  is 
doubtful  whether  he  was  a physician. 

d.  212. — Quintus  Serenus  Sammonicus.  Father  and 
son  named  alike.  The  father  was  put  to  death 
by  Caracalla.  Either  the  father  or  the  son 
wrote  a formulary  of  medicine  for  the  poor  in 
the  form  of  a poem,  the  “ Medicinse  pracepta 
saluberrima.”  It  was  printed  in  1731  and 
consists  of  1 15  hexameters. 

ca.  230  (?). — Philumenos.  A physician  of  the  Methodic 
School.  He  wrote  rationally  on  the  treatment 
of  various  abdominal  diseases,  e.g.,  diarrhoea 


39 


Later  Roman  Medicine 

and  upon  the  diseases  of  women  in  their  surgical 
aspect.  He  also  wrote  on  venomous  animals 
and  their  remedies  and  upon  the  anomalies  of 
parturition.  His  date  is  very  uncertain. 

251-266. — Plague  of  St.  Cyprian. 

303  — Cosmas  and  Damianus.  Two  brothers,  Arabs  by 
birth,  who  practised  medicine  gratuitously 
among  the  poor  of  Egea  in  Cilicia.  In  the 
Diocletian  persecution  they  were  martyred. 
For  centuries  their  tomb  at  Cyrus  in  Syria 
was  visited  by  pilgrims  suffering  from  various 
diseases.  The  Emperor  Justinian  in  the  sixth 
century  built  a church  in  their  honour  at  Con- 
stantinople. Later  their  relics  were  removed 
to  Rome  and  placed  in  the  church  dedicated 
to  them  by  Pope  Felix.  After  they  were  canon- 
ized they  became  the  patron  saints  of  medicine 
and  pharmacy,  being  known  as  the  avapyvpoi  be- 
cause they  took  no  fees.  The  Confraternity  of 
Surgeons  of  France  held  them  in  special 
honour,  the  College  of  St.  C6me  at  Paris 
being  founded  by  Jean  Pitard  in  1210. 

326-403. — Oribasius.  Physician,  therapeutist,  anatomist 
and  politician.  The  friend  and  companion  of 
Julian  the  Emperor,  by  whom  he  was  appointed 
Questor  of  Constantinople.  He  advocated 
scarification  in  treatment  of  plague  and  other 
diseases  and  first  described  a peculiar  form  of 
melancholia.  Epitomized  Galen.  Wrote  in 


40 


Later  Roman  Medicine 

Greek  and  his  works  were  soon  translated  into 
Arabic,  Syriac  and  Latin.  His  treatise  on 
bandaging  was  a textbook  for  centuries. 

369. — Hospital  of  St.  Basil.  Erected  at  Caesarea  by 
Justinian.  • 

370  —Sextus  Placitus  of  Papyra. — A writer  on  drugs 
and  remedies,  mainly  those  derived  from  the 
animal  kingdom.  Some  of  his  manuscripts 
translated  into  Latin  survive  to-day. 

400. — Gaelius  Aurelianus.  A leader  in  the  Methodic 
School.  He  made  a special  study  of  hydro- 
phobia. Recommends  music  to  charm  pain. 
It  was  through  his  writings  that  the  work  of 
Soranus  became  popularized. 

In  his  work  on  acute  and  chronic  disease,  he 
wrote  a textbook  of  medicine  free  from  mys- 
ticism and  founded  on  rationalism.  He  de- 
scribes gout  and  especially  advanced  differential 
diagnosis  and  even  hinted  at  auscultation. 
It  is  probable  that  much  of  his  work  was 
directly  traceable  to  Soranus  the  Ephesian. 
His  works  have  been  reprinted  several  times 
from  1529. 

ca.  400. — Lucius  Appuleius.  Writer  of  “ Herbarium,” 
which  is  illustrated  with  drawings  of  herbs  and 
plants  and  has  been  frequently  printed.  He  is 
usually  quoted  as  Appuleius  Barbarus. 

fl.  400  a.d. — Yegetius.  Author  of  a systematic  treatise  on 
veterinary  medicine,  which  was  largely  copied 


41 


Byzantine  Medicine 


from  the  work  of  Mago,  a Carthagenian,  who 
wrote  twenty-eight  books  on  agriculture  in 
200  b.c.  Vegetius  alludes  to  an  Army  Medical 
Service  among  the  Romans. 

ca.  430. — Hesychios  of  Damascus.  Settled  in  Byzantium 
after  practising  for  forty  years  elsewhere.  He 
was  one  of  the  fine  flowers  of  the  Eastern 
Empire  when  the  Roman  influence  in  the 
West  was  reverting  to  Barbarism. 

ca.  460  — Jacobus  Psycochristus.  First  physician  to  the 
Emperor  Leo  the  Great,  and  much  esteemed 
for  his  skill  and  experience.  He  was  the  son 
of  Hesyschios  of  Damascus  and  was  known 
to  his  contemporaries  as  the  “ Zeuxis  and 
Pheidias  of  Medicine.”  His  disinterestedness 
and  ardent  philanthropy  were  marked  by  his 
fellow  citizens,  who  raised  a statue  to  him  and 
gave  him  the  title  of  “ Saviour.”  He  derived 
his  soubriquet  of  “ Psycochristus  ” from  the 
value  he  attached  to  a cooling  and  fluid  diet. 

ca.  490. — Asclepiodotus.  A pupil  of  Jacobus,  well  versed 
in  mathematics  and  music.  He  revived  the 
use  of  white  hellebore  in  medicine  and  was 
essentially  a naturalist  as  we  understand  the 
term. 

502-575. — Aetius  of  Amida  in  Mesopotamia.  Surgeon 
and  therapeutist,  practising  in  Constantinople. 
He  described  the  Guinea-worm  and  he  was 
the  earliest  Greek  medical  writer  among  the 


42 


Byzantine  Medicine 


Christians  who  gives  any  examples  of  the  spells 
and  charms  used  by  the  Egyptians.  Some  of 
his  works  have  been  printed. 

525-605. — Alexander  of  Tralles  in  Lydia.  Physician. 

Author  of  many  works  on  medicine  and  treat- 
ment of  disease.  Recommended  the  use  of 
amulets  and  charms.  He  practised  in  Rome 
and  travelled  much  in  Spain,  Gaul  and  Italy. 
He  was  probably  a Christian  with  some  know- 
ledge of  Hebrew.  His  works  in  Greek  with 
Latin  translations  have  been  printed  and  show 
that  he  was  more  than  a mere  compiler. 

527-565. — Plague  of  Justinian. 

529. — The  Abbey  Monte  Cassino.  Founded  by  Benedict 
of  Nursia. 

ca.  553  ('?). — Palladius  of  Alexandria.  Commentator  on 
Hippocrates.  His  writings  on  Fractures  and 
Fevers  have  been  printed. 

ca.  560- — Dranius.  Practised  medicine  in  Constantinople. 

Said  to  have  been  more  famous  for  his  conceit 
than  his  skill. 

ca.  580  (?).  — Moschion.  Wrote  a catechism  on  diseases 
of  women.  His  manual  for  midwives  was  first 
translated  into  Latin  and  then  back  to  Greek 
and  is  mainly  taken  from  the  work  of  Soranus. 
His  date  is  uncertain. 

ca.  600. — El  Harits  Ben  Kalada.  A Christian  physician 
from  El  Taif  near  Mecca  He  studied  at 
Jondisabur  and  travelled  in  India.  He  in- 


43 


Byzantine  Medicine 

fluenced  Mohammed  in  the  hygienic  and  medical 
views  which  afterwards  became  incorporated  in 
the  Koran. 

590.  Epidemic  of  Mai  Ardent,  St.  Anthony’s  Fire 

(Gangrenous  ergotism)  in  France. 

610-641. — Theophilos.  A Christian  Physician.  He  was 
surnamed  “ Protospatharios,”  a title  originally 
given  to  the  colonels  of  the  bodyguard  of  the 
Emperor  at  Constantinople,  but  afterwards  to 
high  civil  dignitaries.  First  to  write  specially 
on  the  study  of  the  urine,  its  colour,  consistence, 
and  the  prognosis  to  be  drawn  from  it.  He 
wrote  on  anatomy  and  urged  the  necessity  for 
dissection.  He  traced  the  first  pair  of  nerves 
from  their  origin.  His  works  in  Greek  with 
a Latin  translation  have  been  printed. 

ca.  610-641. — Ahrun.  Lived  under  the  Emperor  Heraclius. 

Priest-physician  of  Alexandria.  Described 
small-pox,  its  cause,  symptoms  and  treatment, 
and  ascribes  scrofula  to  bad  food  and  habits 
of  life.  His  work,  “ Pandectae  Medicinae,”  in 
thirty  books,  written  in  Greek,  was  translated 
into  Syriac  about  68o,  and  also  into  Arabic. 

621.  Small  pox  and  Measles  said  to  have  made  their 
first  appearance. 

625-690. — Paulos  ASgineta.  Surgeon.  Made  a special 
study  of  the  diseases  of  women.  He  wrote  a 
large  work  on  medicine  and  surgery,  and  was 
so  especially  consulted  by  midwives  that  he 


44 


Byzantine  Medicine 

received  the  title:  “ Al.  kawabeli  ” or  “The 
Accoucheur.”  He  was  held  in  high  esteem  by 
the  Arabian  physicians,  and  his  works  were 
translated  into  Arabic  by  Joannitius.  The 
Greek  text  has  been  published  and  the  Latin 
versions  have  been  repeatedly  printed.  He 
advocated  cupping  and  scarifying,  and  described 
tracheotomy.  There  is  a good  English  trans- 
lation of  his  works  by  Francis  Adams,  of 
Banchory. 

ca.  640. — Stephanos  of  Athens.  Pupil  of  Theophilos, 
the  protospatharios.  Author  of  a commentary 
on  Hippocrates  and  Galen,  which  is  said  to  be 
the  most  important  of  all  ancient  commentaries. 
The  original  Greek  translations  and  a Latin 
one  have  been  printed  ; also  his  work  on 
medicine. 

651. — Hotel  Dieu,  Paris.  Founded  by  Bishop  Landry. 

ARABIAN  AND  ISLAMIC  PERIOD. 

7,65-1258. — ARABIAN  SCHOOL  OF  MEDICINE. 

Founded  at  Baghdad  as  a direct  outcome  of  the 
civilization  of  the  Caliphate  period.  The  School 
is  marked  by  the  number  of  translations  into 
Arabic  of  the  classical  medical  writers  made 
by  Syrian,  Persian,  Greek  and  Jewish  phy- 
sicians. 

ca.  765. — Dschordschis  Bachtischua.  Christian  physi- 
cian. First  physician  to  the  Caliph  El- Mansur 


45 


Arabian  School  of  Medicine 

in  Baghdad.  He  translated  many  of  the  works 
of  the  Greek  fathers  of  medicine  into  Arabic. 
His  son  Bachtischua  Ben  Dschordschis  was 
physician  to  the  Caliph  Harun-el-Raschid  in 
Baghdad. 

777-857. — Mesue  the  Elder.  Arabian  physician,  pro- 
bably a Christian.  He  was  the  director  of 
the  Infirmary  at  Baghdad  and  was  the  author 
of  several  works  on  medicine  of  which  his 
Aphorisms  were  printed  in  1489. 

792. — Hospitals  and  Medical  Schools  founded  in  Bagh- 
dad by  Harun-El-Raschid. 

794. — Hospital  founded  at  St.  Albans,  England. 

802-849. — Serapion  the  Elder,  or  Jahia  Ben  Serabi. 

Christian  physician  of  Damascus.  Advocated 
the  treatment  of  disease  by  diet,  regimen  and 
internal  remedies.  Author  of  the  “ Aggre- 
gator,” “ Practica,”  “ Breviarium.”  He  em- 
ployed venesection  largely  and  gave  directions 
as  to  the  veins  to  be  “ breathed  ” in  particular 
diseases.  His  identity  was  concealed  by  the 
fourteenth  century  physicians  under  the  name 
of  John  Damascene.  Serapion  the  Younger 
lived  about  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century  and 
wrote,  in  Arabic,  a large  work  on  pharmacology 
which  was  translated  into  Latin.  The  works 
of  both  Serapions  have  been  printed. 

809-873. — Joannitius  or  Hunayn  Ibn  Ishaq.  The  son 

of  a Christian  apothecary  and  pupil  of  Mesue. 

46 


Arabian  School  of  Medicine 

He  was  one  of  the  great  translators  of  medical 
works  from  Greek  into  Arabic.  His  introduc- 
tion to  Galen’s  “ Microtegni  ” was  issued  in 
Latin  under  the  title  “ Isagoge  Johannitii  in 
medicinam.”  It  was  a text-book  of  medicine 
throughout  the  Middle  Ages.  He  also  wrote 
two  treatises  on  diseases  of  the  eye,  of  which 
Latin  translations  are  preserved. 

813-873. — Alkindus  (Yacub  Ibn  Ishak  El  Kindi).  An 

Arab  living  in  Baghdad.  He  was  called 
“ The  Philosopher.”  Author  of  over  two 
hundred  treatises  on  medicine,  only  one  of 
which  has  been  printed  in  a Latin  translation. 

830-950.  Ishak  Ben  Soleiman,  or  Isaac  Judaeus.  Jewish 
physician  who  practised  ophthalmology  in 
Egypt.  He  wrote  on  dietetics  and  advocated 
the  use  of  senna.  He  wrote  the  Pantechni 
which  was  erroneously  attributed  to  Galen,  and 
was  translated  into  Latin  by  Constantine  of 
Carthage.  His  treatise  on  fevers  was  one 
of  the  books  required  of  bachelors  who  wished 
to  graduate  as  Masters  at  the  University  of 
Montpellier.  These  works  have  been  trans- 
lated into  Latin  and  printed. 

Algizar  (Abu  Jafar  Ahmed  Ben  Ibrahim  Al-Jezzar). 

A pupil  of  Isaac  the  Jew.  He  wrote  the  Via- 
ticum, which  had  a wide  circulation  and  was 
translated  into  Greek,  Latin  and  Hebrew.  The 
“ Itinerary  for  the  Poor”  is  ascribed  to  him,  in 


47 


Arabian  School  of  Medicine 

which  he  treated  of  the  causes  of  the  plague 
in  Egypt. 

A1  Hazen.  Arab  ophthalmic  anatomist  and  surgeon. 
Author  of  “ Opticae  Thesaurus.” 

702-765. — Geber  (Jabir  Ibn  Hayyan).  Famous  alchemist 
and  writer  on  alchemy.  Most  of  the  works  in 
Latin  under  his  name,  published  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  are  spurious.  He  is  said  to  have  dis- 
covered corrosive  sublimate,  nitric  acid,  arsen- 
ious  acid,  mercuric  chloride,  silver  nitrate,  &c. 

The  AYesta.  (See  also  Persian  Period.)  The  sacred  book 
of  the  Zoroastrians,  which  mentions  three 
classes  of  healers,  viz.,  those  who  treated  by 
prayers  and  religious  observances,  by  diet  and 
drugs,  and  by  instruments. 

ca.  848. — SCHOOL  OF  SALERNO.  A great  medical 
school  of  medicine  which  grew  up  in  a Greek- 
speaking part  of  Italy  and  was  independent  of 
the  Church.  From  it  emanated  the  Regimen 
Sanitatis  Salernitanum,  the  popular  treatise  on 
health  which  ran  through  hundreds  of  editions 
and  was  first  printed  ca.  1480. 

ca.  850. — ’All  Ibn  Rabban.  Arab  physician  and  writer 
of  books  on  medicine,  among  which  was  the 
“ Paradise  of  Wisdom,”  a work  dealing  writh 
medicine,  philosophy,  embryology,  psychology 
and.  astronomy,  also  nutrition  and  dietetics. 
He  mentions  tertian  and  quartan  fevers,  pleurisy 
and  small-pox,  elephantiasis,  lupus  and  cancer. 

48 


Arabian  School  of  Medicine 

850-923.  Rhazes.  (Abu  Bakr  Muhammed  Ibn  Zakariya 
Ar— Ray,  or  El  Razi.)  A Persian  by  birth. 
One  of  the  most  illustrious  of  the  Arabian 
physicians,  and  called  the  “ Galen  of  the 
Arabs.”  He  was  the  director  of  the  hospital 
at  Baghdad  and  studied,  specially,  diseases  of 
the  eye  and  skin.  The  first  writer  to  treat 
expressly  of  the  diseases  of  childhood.  In 
materia  medica  he  advocated  the  use  of  arsenic, 
saltpetre,  borax,  red  coral,  precious  stones  and 
oil  of  ants.  He  is  said  to  have  written 
1 13  great  works  and  twenty-eight  minor  works 
during  his  lifetime,  including  a treatise  on 
small-pox  and  measles,  the  earliest  monograph 
on  the  subject.  He  wrote  “ A1  Hawl”  or 
“ Continens,”  which  was  read  until  long  after 
the  Renaissance  in  Europe.  He  was  essentially 
a clinical  physician.  His  works  have  been  re- 
peatedly printed.  An  English  translation  of 
the  treatise  on  small-pox  and  measles  with 
extracts  from  some  of  his  other  books,  was 
published  by  Dr.  Greenhill  in  1848. 

Ibn  u’l-Baytar  of  Malaga.  A botanist  and  writer  of 
several  works  on  materia  medica,  who  tra- 
velled through  Greece  and  Asia  Minor  in 
search  of  medicinal  plants. 

Zaynu’d-Dm  Ismail  of  Jurjan.  Author  of  several 
works  on  medicine,  the  largest  of  which  is 
entitled  “ Dhakhira-i-Khwarazshalu,”  an  en- 
cyclopedic work  containing  1,403  pages,  which 


D 


49 


Arabian  School  of  Medicine 

includes  discourses  on  local  diseases,  diseases 
of  the  heart,  dropsy  and  materia  medica. 

936-1013. — Albucasis.  (Abu’l-Qasim  Al-ZahrawL)  Also 
called  Abulkasim,  Alzaharavius.  (Chalaf  Ben 
Abbas  Abul  Casim  El-Zahrewi.)  Spanish- 
Arabian  physician,  born  near  Cordova.  Author 
of  the  “Compendium,”  “ Altasrif,”  which  is 
mostly  derived  from  the  Greek  doctrines.  It 
was  the  leading  surgical  textbook  until  the  time 
of  William  of  Salicet.  Advocated  the  use  of  the 
actual  cautery  in  most  diseases  ; also  described 
operations  for  fistula,  cataract,  goitre  and 
aneurysm  and  recommended  the  use  of  the 
ligature.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  write 
on  deformities  of  the  mouth,  and  to  give 
illustrations  of  the  instruments  employed  in 
surgery. 

962. — Hospice  St  Bernard  founded. 

994.— Haly  Abbas.  (’All  Ibnu’l-Abbas  Al-Majusi  ) Persian 
physician.  Author  of  “ El-Maliki  ” the  “ Royal 
Book,”  the  first  ten  chapters  of  which  treat  of 
the  theory  and  the  second  ten  of  the  practice 
of  medicine.  He  deals  especially  well  with  the 
subject  of  dietetics.  It  was  the  standard  text- 
book until  it  was  superseded  by  the  “ Canon  " 
of  Avicenna.  He  urges  the  importance  of  the 
regular  attendance  of  the  students  of  medicine 
at  the  hospitals,  where,  he  says,  “they  should 
pay  unremitting  attention  to  the  conditions  and 


50 


Arabian  School  of  Medicine 

circumstances  of  their  inmates,  and  inquire 
frequently  as  to  the  state  of  the  patients  and 
the  symptoms  apparent  in  them,  bearing  in 
mind  what  they  have  read  about  these  varia- 
tions and  what  they  indicate  of  good  or  evil. 
If  they  do  this  they  will  reach  a high  degree 
in  the  Art.”  He  was  also  an  authority  of 
his  time  on  obstetrics.  He  describes  per- 
foration, cephalotripsy  and  extraction  by  a 
hook. 

980-1037 — Avicenna.  (Abu  All  Husayn  Ibn  Abdu  llah 

Ibn  Sina.)  Called  by  his  countrymen  “ The 
Prince  of  Physicians.”  He  was  a Persian  by 
birth.  He  wrote  his  first  book  on  medicine  at 
the  age  of  21.  He  issued  twenty-one  great 
works  and  twenty-four  smaller  ones  on  medi- 
cine, philosophy  and  geometry.  The  largest 
and  most  famous  of  his  works  is  the  great 
“ Canon.”  In  it  he  comments  on  anatomy, 
physiology,  medicine,  surgery,  midwifery,  psy- 
chiatry and  materia  medica.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  to  note  that  phthisis  was 
contagious.  The  “ Qanrin  ” or  “Canon”  was 
long  regarded  as  an  infallible  oracle  of  medicine. 
His  works  have  been  printed  in  Latin  and 
Hebrew  as  well  as  in  Arabic.  His  tomb  is  at 
Hamadan. 

ca.  920.— Theophanes  Nonnus.  He  was  ordered  by  the 
Emperor  Constantine  Porphyrogenitus  to  com- 
pile the  medical  portion  of  an  encyclopaedia, 


5i 


Arabian  School  of  Medicine 

which  he  did  in  290  short  chapters  embodying 
the  work  of  Oribasius,  Aetios,  Alexander  of 
Tralles  and  Paul  of  iEgineta. 

960-976. — The  Golden  Age  of  Moorish  Medicine  at 
Cordoba  in  Spain. 

d.  1050. — Gariopontus.  One  of  the  early  teachers  in  the 
School  of  Salerno.  Edited  the  “ Passionarius,’ 
a handbook  of  special  pathology  and  thera- 
peutics of  Byzantine  origin.  It  was  erroneously 
attributed  to  Galen.  Was  the  first  to  mention 
anaesthesia  by  inhalation  of  narcotic  vapours. 

ca.  1010-1087. — Constantine  the  African.  Born  at  Car- 
thage : studied  at  Baghdad  and  banished  to 
Salerno.  He  was  converted  to  Christianity 
and  became  a monk  at  Monte  Cassino  in  1075. 
Author  of  treatises  on  disorders  of  the  stomach 
and  on  melancholy.  An  early  graduate  of  the 
School  of  Salerno.  He  translated  many  of  the 
Arabic  treatises  into  Latin  and  was  thus  instru- 
mental in  introducing  them  to  Western  Euro- 
pean medicine. 

fl.  1050.— Ali  Ben  Isa,  or  Jesus  Haly.  Writer  of  a “ Book 

of  Memoranda  for  Eye-Doctors,”  which  has 
been  preserved  entire.  The  leading  ophthalmic 
surgeon  of  the  eleventh  century. 

1113-1162. — Avenzoar,  or  Abumeron.  (Abw  el  Malik; 

Abu  Merwan  Ibn  Zuhr.)  Spanish  physician 
and  surgeon.  Probably  a Jew,  born  near 
Seville,  of  a renowned  medical  family,  he  was 


52 


Moorish  School  of  Medicine 

called  “The  Wise  and  Illustrious.’’  Experi- 
mented on  animals  and  probably  was  the  first 
to  attempt  the  total  extirpation  of  the  uterus. 
Recommended  goat’s  milk  in  phthisis  and  noted 
the  harmful  effect  of  emanations  from  swampy 
ground.  He  described  the  A cams  scabiei  and 
advocated  that  experience  should  be  the  sole 
guide  of  the  physician.  He  wrote  “ A1  Teisir,” 
a treatise  full  of  interesting  details.  Latin 
translations  of  his  works  have  been  printed. 

1020-1105.— Michael  Psellus.  Wrote  works  on  “The 
Bath,”  “The  Healing  Power  of  Precious 
Stones,”  and  a treatise  on  dietetics. 

1021,  1278,  1375. — The  Dancing  Mania.  Raged  in  the 
two  former  years  and  in  1375,  as  an  epidemic 
of  chorea,  which  is  still  perpetuated  in  the 
name  of  “ St.  Vitus’s  Dance.” 

1099  — Order  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem  founded. 

fl.  1100.— Joannes  Hispanus,  or  John  of  Toledo.  He 

translated  into  Latin  a pseudo- Aristotelian 
epistle  to  Alexander  the  Great  which  may  have 
been  the  prototype  of  the  Regimen  Sanitatis 
Salerni. 

1114-1187. — Gerard  of  Cremona.  Lived  at  Toledo  and 
was  the  translator-general  of  his  time  of  the 
works  of  Hippocrates.  Galen  and  many  of  the 
Arabian  writers. 

1126-1198. — Averroes.  (Abul  Welid  Muhammed  ben 
Ahmed  ebn  Roshd  Ibn  Rushd.)  A Moham- 


53 


Moorish  School  of  Medicine 

medan  physician  of  Cordova.  Was  a pupil  of 
Avenzoar  and  governor  of  Andalusia  in  1196. 
Exercised  considerable  influence  in  his  time. 
The  followers  of  Averroism  held  a mixture 
of  peripatetic,  neo-platonic  and  oriental  con- 
ceptions which  resulted  in  a form  of  Pantheism. 
He  wrote  “ Colliget,”  a colossal  commentary 
on  the  Canon  of  Avicenna. 

1123. — St.  Bartholomew  s Hospital  (London)  founded  by 
Rahere. 

1131— Clergy  forbidden  to  practise  medicine  by  Council 
of  Rheims. 

1132.  Holy  Cross  Hospital  founded  at  Winchester. 

fl.  1130  50. — Matthew  Platearius.  A member  of  a dis- 
tinguished medical  family.  He  wrote  a treatise 
“ de  simplici  medicina,”  which  from  the  first 
words  of  the  text  is  usually  quoted  as  “circa 
instans.” 

1135-1204.— Maimonides  (Musa  Ibn  Maymun,  Moses 
ben  Maimon),  of  Cordova.  Physician  and  phi- 
losopher. Author  of  “ Aphorisms  ” and  works 
on  dietetics  and  haemorrhoids.  After  much 
persecution  he  settled  in  Cairo  and  became 
physician  to  the  sons  of  Saladin,  for  whom  he 
wrote  a treatise  of  personal  hygiene  which  was 
printed  in  1478.  He  also  wrote  on  poisons. 

1140.— King  Roger  II.  of  Sicily  issued  an  edict  forbidding 
anyone  to  practise  medicine  without  an  examin- 
ation. 


54 


Salernitanian  School  of  Medicine 

ca.  1140. — Nicholaus  the  Salernitan.  Sometimes  confused 
with  Nicholas  Prepositi,  President  of  the  School 
of  Salerno.  He  was  the  author  of  “ Antido- 
tarium  ” in  which  the  apothecaries’  weight  is 
stated.  Author  of  a work  called  “ Quid  pro 
Quo,”  an  alphabetically-arranged  catalogue  of 
equivalent  drugs.  From  this  title  the  common 
expression  originated.  He  described  the  sopor- 
ific sponge  for  use  before  operating.  It  was 
steeped  in  a mixture  of  opium,  hyoscyamus, 
mulberry  juice,  lettuce,  mandragora,  and  ivy, 
dried  and  when  moistened  inhaled  by  the 
patient.  The  Antidotarium  was  printed  at 
Venice  in  1471. 

1145.— Hospital  of  the  Holy  Ghost  founded  at  Mont- 
pellier by  William  VIII  of  Montpellier. 

1180-1250  (?).— Gilbertus  Anglicus,  Gilbert  of  England. 

The  Gilbertyn  of  Chaucer’s  prologue.  Author 
of  the  “ Compendium  Medicinas,”  a systematic 
Latin  text-book  founded  on  Arab  writers  and 
their  copyists.  Possibly  took  part  in  the  Third 
Crusade.  Mentions  the  use  of  mercurial  pre- 
parations and  acetate  of  ammonia  in  medicine 
and  makes  a clear  distinction  between  measles 
and  small-pox.  He  also  wrote  a first-hand 
description  of  leprosy. 

fl.  1190-1252. — Ricardus  Anglicus,  Richard  the  English- 
man. A Master  at  Salerno  who  lived  for  some 
time  in  France  and  in  England.  He  wrote 


5.5 


Salernitanian  School  of  Medicine 

“ Micrologus,”  a textbook  on  medicine.  He 
was  Master  of  the  Hospital  of  St.  John  at 
Rome  and  died  in  1252.  He  also  wrote  a work 
on  anatomy  which  has  been  printed.  (He  is 
not  identical  with  Ricardus  Anglicus  or  Richard 
of  Wendover,  physician  to  Gregory  IX). 

1193-1280. — Albertus  Magnus.  Albert  von  Bollstadt 

of  Lauingen,  Swabia.  A Do- 
minican monk  and  Bishop  of 
Ratisbon.  He  was  a philosopher 
and  student  of  anatomy,  physio- 
logy and  botany.  He  wrote 
“ De  Animalibus  ” and  “ De 
Vegetabilibus.”  He  was  an 
early  example  of  an  Encyclo- 
paedist and  had  as  a pupil 
Thomas  Aquinas.  His  collected 
works  are  contained  in  twenty- 
one  quarto  volumes. 

fl.  1180. — Roger  of  Palermo.  Surgeon.  Taught  in  the 

School  of  Salerno.  He  wrote  his  “ Practica  ” 
in  1180. 

fl.  1250.— Roland  of  Parma.  Professor  at  Bologna,  pupil 
of  Roger.  He  advocated  excision  of  chancres, 
scrofulous  glands  and  goitre.  He  edited  in 
1264  the  “Rogerina”  or  “The  Practice  of 
Surgery,”  written  by  Master  Roger  in  1180. 
This  was  the  textbook  on  which  the  four 
Masters  wrote  their  celebrated  commentary. 

56 


Salernitanian  School  of  Medicine 

Roland’s  version  of  Roger’s  treatise  is  usually 
quoted  as  “ Rolandino.” 

fl.  1230. — Joannes  Jamerius,  or  Jamatus.  A surgeon  of 
the  School  of  Salerno.  He  wrote  the  “ Chi- 
rurgia  Jamati  ” which  has  been  printed.  Gui 
de  Chauliac  says  of  it:  “Jamerius  followed 
(the  four  great  masters)  who  made  a sort  of 
rough  surgery  in  which  there  were  many  point- 
less things.” 

1247. — Rashidu’d-Din  Fadlu’llah.  Born  at  Hamadan, 
where  Avicenna  is  buried  and  was  one  of  the 
most  learned  men  and  scholarly  writers  of  his 
time.  Was  Court  physician  to  the  Mongol 
ruler  Abaqa.  Amassed  great  wealth  which  he 
used  in  a beneficent  manner  for  the  foundation 
of  hospitals,  colleges  and  libraries.  He  lived 
at  Tabriz. 

1201-1277. — William  of  Salicet.  Surgeon  and  professor 
at  Bologna  and  Verona.  He  was  ordained 
priest.  Author  of  “ Chirurgia  ” in  1275  and 
works  on  medicine.  He  recognized  arterial 
bleeding  by  the  spurting  of  the  blood,  used 
the  knife  in  place  of  the  cautery,  sutured  divided 
nerves  and  wounded  intestine  and  understood 
the  value  of  crepitus  in  diagnosing  fractures. 
He  was  the  first  to  employ  chemical  prepara- 
tions in  the  treatment  of  disease. 

1205-1298. — Theodorius,  or  Theodoric  of  Cervia.  Son 

of  Hugo  Borgognoni,  founder  of  the  Surgical 


57 


Salernitanian  School  of  Medicine 

School  at  Bologna.  Theodorius,  trained  as  a 
surgeon,  entered  the  church  and  became  Bishop 
of  Cervia  in  1266.  He  compiled  a work  on 
surgery  which  gained  a considerable  reputa- 
tion and  he  taught  that  pus  was  not  necessary 
in  the  healing  of  wounds.  He  ranks  as  a 
pioneer  in  aseptic  surgery.  He  was  surgeon  to 
Pope  Innocent  IV  and  recommended  opium 
and  henbane  to  stupefy  patients  before  an 
operation. 

1210.- College  of  St.  Come  in  Paris  founded  by  Jean 
Pitard. 

1215.— St.  Thomas  s Hospital,  London,  re-founded  by 
Peter,  Bishop  of  Winchester. 

1214-1292. — Roger  Bacon.  To  whom  is  attributed  the 
invention  of  gunpowder,  the  telescope,  lenses 
and,  probably,  the  microscope  and  the  burning 
glass.  Writer  on  the  natural  sciences, 
chemistry,  physics  and  astronomy. 

1224.  Frederic  II  issued  an  Ordinance  requiring 
that  candidates  desiring  licence  to  practise 
medicine  must  be  properly  examined  by  the 
masters  at  Salerno. 

1235-1312. — Raymond  Lully.  A monk  who  wrote  on 
alchemy  and  philosophy  and  also  on  medical 
subjects,  viz.  : “ De  Pulsibus  et  Urinis,’:  “ De 
Medicinse  theorica  et  practica.” 


53 


Salernitanian  School  of  Medicine 

4241.  Small  pox  first  appeared  in  England. 


1245  (?)-1310. — Arnold  of  Yillanova.  Physician,  Al- 
chemist and  Astrologer.  Born  in  Spain  and 
educated  at  Naples  Practised  at  Barcelona, 
Avignon  and  Montpellier.  Physician  to  Peter 
III  of  Aragon  and  Pope  Clement  V ; treated 
Pope  Boniface  VIII  for  stone  in  the  bladder. 
Ambassador  from  Peter  of  Aragon  to  Philip 
le  Bel.  He  wrote  a commentary,  “ Parabolae,” 
on  the  Regimen  Sanitatis  Salerni,  and  a set  of 
aphorisms  dedicated  to  Philip  le  Bel,  a Compen- 
dium of  Practice  and  a Herbal.  He  introduced 
alcohol  and  medicinal  wines  into  the  materia 
medica;  brandy  he  held  to  be  the  “elixir  of 
life.”  A collected  edition  of  his  works  was 
printed  at  Lyons  in  1504,  and  passed  through 
nine  editions. 

ca.  1290. — Nicholaos  Myrepsos  of  Nicaea.  Studied  at 
Salerno.  The  author  of  an  “ Antidotarium,”  or 
pharmacopoeia  compiled  from  Greek,  Latin 
and  Arab  authors,  containing  2,656  recipes 
against  disease.  It  was  printed  in  1541  and 
was  largely  used  as  a book  of  reference  until 
the  sixteenth  century. 

ca.  1252. — Bruno  of  Longoburgo  (Calabria).  Surgeon 
and  Professor  at  Padua  ; author  of  “ Chirurgia 
nragna  ” and  “ Chirurgia  parva.”  Notices  am- 
putations in  gangrene  of  the  limbs,  and  ligation 
of  arteries,  and  was  an  acute  observer. 


59 


Salernitanian  School  of  Medicine 

ca.  1260. — Trotula  de  Ruggieri.  Of  the  School  of  Salerno, 
the  reputed  authoress  of  a treatise  entitled:  “De 
passionibus  mulierum  ante,  in  et  post  partum/’ 
Trotula  is  thought  to  be  the  diminutive  of 
Trotu.  The  name  may  have  been  applied  to 
the  women  nurses  who  followed  the  gynaeco- 
logists at  Salerno  and  it  seems  likely  that  the 
name  Trotula  was  given  to  the  book  itself  and 
not  to  the  writer  of  it. 

fl.  1264. — Vincent  de  Beauvais.  Author  of  “Speculum 
Majus,”  a well-known  encyclopaedia  of  the 
scientific  knowledge  of  the  time,  written  for  the 
children  of  King  Louis  IX  to  whom  he  was 
tutor.  The  work  was  printed  at  Strasburg  in 
seven  vols.,  1473-76;  at  Nuremburg  in  two  vols., 
1485  ; and  at  Douai  in  four  vols,  1624. 

ca.  1280  — Johannes  Actuarius  of  Constantinople. 

Physician  at  the  Court  of  the  Palaeologi  and 
Uroscopist  at  the  Byzantine  Court.  The  last 
of  the  Byzantine  writers.  Author  of  “ De 
Methodo  Medendi.”  Mentions  the  use  of 
cassia,  manna,  myrobalans  and  senna  fruit  as 
mild  purgatives,  and  observes  the  value  of  the 
consideration  of  the  urine  and  the  pulse  in 
prognosis.  He  introduced  the  use  of  a gradu- 
ated glass  to  measure  the  deposits  in  urine 
on  the  principle  afterwards  employed  in  the 
“ Chemical  Weather  Glass.” 


60 


Early  French  Surgery 

1298  (?)- 1 368. — Gui  de  Chauliac.  Surgeon.  Studied  at 
Montpellier,  Toulouse,  Bologna 
and  Paris.  Became  physician  to 
Popes  Clement  VI,  Innocent  VI 
and  Urban  V at  Avignon.  Author 
in  1363  of  “ Chirurgia  Magna” 
which  for  centuries  influenced  the 
art  in  Europe.  It  was  translated 
into  French,  Provencal,  English, 
Italian,  Dutch  and  Hebrew.  No 
English  version  has  been  printed 
though  there  are  several  in  manu- 
script. Advocated  venesection 
and  the  actual  cautery,  and  performed  litho- 
tomy. Haemorrhage  he  classified  as  arterial  and 
venous.  He  used  styptics,  sutures,  the  actual 
cautery  and  ligation.  In  1353  he  was  appointed 
Canon  and  Prebendary  of  Rheims. 

d.  1315. — Lanfranc  of  Milan.  The  pupil  of  William  de 
Salicet  who  brought  Italian  surgery  to  France. 
Surgeon  and  lecturer  at  the  College  de  Saint 
Come  in  Paris.  Inaugurated  clinical  lectures, 
and  advocated  the  actual  cautery.  In  his 
“Chirurgia  Magna”  and  “Minor”  written 
1295-1296,  he  describes  thirty-two  forms  of 
ulcers,  diseases  of  the  eyes,  ears,  nose  and 
skin,  also  treatment  of  fractures  and  disloca- 
tions. He  taught  that  anatomy  was  the 
foundation  of  surgery  and  may  be  considered 
the  father  of  French  surgery. 

61 


Thirteenth  Century  Medicine 

1285  Salvino  degli  Armati  (d.  1317)  and  Spina  (d.  1313 i 

of  Florence,  are  said  to  have  invented  spectacles. 

1250-1320. — Peter  of  Abano,  near  Padua.  Physician  and 
philosopher.  Believed  in  astrology,  and  author 
of  work  on  poisons.  His  work,  “ Conciliator 
differentiarum,”  was  printed  at  Venice  in  1471. 

1260  (?)-1320. — Henri  de  Mondeyille.  Surgeon.  Student 
at  Montpellier,  Paris  and  Bologna.  Pupil  of 
Theodoric.  Military  surgeon  and  afterwards 
surgeon  to  Philip  the  Fair  and  his  son  Louis  le 
Hutin.  Laboured  to  bring  surgery  to  a position 
of  as  great  honour  in  France  as  it  held  in 
Italy.  Used  in  teaching  anatomical  plates 
of  a more  natural  type  than  the  traditional 
pictures  hitherto  employed.  Like  Theodoric,  he 
taught  that  wounds  should  heal  without  sup- 
puration. His  Surgery,  written  between  1306 
and  1316,  has  been  printed  and  is  excellent 
reading,  as  he  had  a very  caustic  wit  and  a 
graphic  pen. 

1278  (?)  1330.  — Jan  Yperman.  Dutch  surgeon.  He 
may  have  been  a pupil  of  Lanfranc,  but  he 
practised  at  Ypres  as  surgeon  to  the  Belle 
Hospital  and  served  in  the  wars.  He  wrote 
a textbook  of  surgery  in  Dutch  which  shows 
much  originality. 

1276-1326  — Mundinus|de  Luzzi.  Surgeon  and  anato- 
Mondino  i mist  of  Bologna.  First  to 
perform  a dissection  of  the  human  body  in 


62 


Fourteenth  Ce>itury  Medicine 

public,  and  to  advocate  its  advantages  in  the 
teaching  of  medicine.  Author  of  “ Anatome 
omnium  humani  corporis  interiorum  mem- 
brorum,”  1316,  which  served  as  a textbook 
for  anatomy  for  more  than  a hundred  years. 
It  was  said  of  him,  “ Mundinus  quern  omnis 
studentium  universitas  colit  ut  Deum.” 

1307-1326. — Alessandra  Gigliani.  Prosector  to  Mun- 
dinus at  Bologna.  A pioneer  of  anatomical 
injection  and  wax  modelling;  by  her  skill  in 
these  forms  of  demonstration  she  added  greatly 
to  the  fame  of  Mundinus’  teaching.  She  died 
“ consumed  by  her  labours  ” at  the  age  of  19. 

1315. — Mondino  performs  his  first  public  dissection  of 
a human  subject. 

ca.  1300.  — Bernard  Gordon.  Of  Scottish  descent.  One 
of  the  earliest  professors  at  the 
School  of  Montpellier,  where  he 
began  to  teach  in  1285.  Author 
of  the  “ Lilium  medicinse,”  issued 
in  1305.  First  printed  at  Naples, 
1480.  It  was  a widely-read  text- 
book for  a century.  Mentions 
the  use  of  spectacles,  calling  them 
“ oculus  berellinus  ” and  gives  the 
first  description  of  the  modern 
truss.  His  book  is  typical  of  the 
Middle  Ages  in  its  rigid  adher- 
ence to  dogma. 

63 


Fourteenth  Century  Medicine 

1280  (?)-1361 . — John  Gaddesden,  M.D.Oxon.  Physician 
in  ordinary  to  Edward  II.  Author  of  “ Rosa 
Anglica  ” in  the  year  1314.  First  edition 
printed  in  1492.  The  work  is  largely  a com- 
pilation from  the  Greek,  Arab  and  Jewish 
physicians.  He  had  some  reputation  among 
his  contemporaries  as  one  skilled  in  the 
diseases  of  women. 

1307-1380  (?). — John  Arderne.  Operating  surgeon,  not  in 
orders.  Practised  in  Newark  1349  to  1370, 
and  afterwards  in  London.  Appears  to  have 
served  as  an  army  surgeon  in  France.  Specially 
studied  fistula,  for  which  he  operated  success- 
fully. He  describes  his  method  and  instruments 
in  his  “ Practica,”  which  contains  a chapter  on 
“The  Fistula  in  ano.”  Some  of  his  formulae 
were  included  in  the  second  issue  of  the 
first  London  Pharmacopoeia  of  1618,  and  re- 
mained in  use  until  1722.  Like  Theodoric  and 
de  Mondeville  he  taught  that  wounds  should 
not  suppurate.  Some  of  his  works  have  been 
translated  and  published  recently. 

d 1330. — Guilelmo  Yarignana.  Professor  of  medicine  at 
Bologna.  He  was  a follower  of  the  Arabian 
School  and  the  son  of  Bartolomeo  Varignana 
[d.  1318],  who  wrote  on  “The  Doses  of 
Medicines." 


ca.  1330.— Simon  de  Corco  de  Genoa.  Botanist  who 
travelled  throughout  the  Near  East,  Greece 


Medieval  Medicine 


and  the  Orient,  to  acquire  a knowledge  of 
plants,  to  name  them  correctly  and  learn  their 
medicinal  properties.  He  wrote  “ Synonyma 
medicinae.” 

1333. — Medical  Botanical  Gardens  founded  at  Venice. 

? 1355. — Record  of  the  first  apothecary’s  shop  in 

London.  There  is  one  recorded  in  York  in  1292. 

1358  and  onwards. — The  Black  Death. 

ca.  1360. — John  Mirfeld.  Wrote  the  “ Breviarium  Bar- 
tholomei  ” in  1387  in  the  Priory  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew’s, London.  The  work  is  extremely 
interesting  and  still  awaits  transcription  and 
publication. 

1385-1550. — Thomas  Morestede.  Surgeon  to  Henry  IV, 
Henry  V and  Henry  VI.  He  accompanied 
Henry  V on  his  second  expedition  to  recover 
Normandy.  Master  of  the  surgeons  in  the 
abortive  scheme  for  uniting  the  physicians  and 
the  surgeons  in  London  in  1423. 

ca.  1500. — Petrus  ab  Argelata.  Surgeon  and  professor 
at  Bologna.  Pupil  of  Gui  de  Chauliac  and 
embalmer  of  Pope  Alexander  V.  He  recom- 
mended compressing  bandages  in  chronic  ulcers 
and  used  the  cautery  in  varicose  veins. 

1509.— Asylum  for  the  Insane,  established  at  Seville. 

fl.  1557. — Antonio  Guainierio.  Physician  and  author  of 
work  on  Diseases  of  Women.  Notes  pregnancy 
in  the  absence  of  menstruation.  First  to  men- 
tion the  use  of  wax  bougies  and  metal  sounds 
e 65 


Mediceval  Medicine 


in  the  treatment  of  urethral  stricture.  Was 
physician  to  several  of  the  Piedmontese  no- 
bility. 

Basil  Valentine.  Possibly  the  pseudonym  of  Johann 
Tholde,  an  alchemist  of  Franckenhausen.  He 
described  the  manufacture  of  sulphuric  and 
hydrochloric  acids  and  lead  acetate  and  extolled 
the  virtues  of  antimony  in  his  work  : “Trium- 
phal Chariot  of  Antimony,”  printed  in  1604. 
He  recommended  a mixture  of  mercury,  lead 
and  antimony  in  the  treatment  of  syphilis. 

1385-1462. — Michael  Savonarola.  Professor  of  medicine 
at  Ferrara  and  author  of  several  works  on 
obstetrics  and  medicine.  He  was  the  grand- 
father of  the  great  preacher  and  religious 
reformer. 

ca.  1430. — Sante  Arduino  of  Venice.  Studied  drugs  and 
their  actions.  The  result  of  his  work  is  em- 
bodied in  “ De  Venenis,”  Venice,  1492. 

ca.  1450  (?).— Brancas  of  Catania.  A family  of  itinerant 
Sicilian  surgeons.  Said  to  have  been  the  first  to 
have  made  use  of  the  skin  of  the  forehead,  cheek 
or  arm  to  restore  the  lips  and  ears.  They  kept 
their  rhinoplastic  methods  secret  until  they 
passed  into  the  family  of  Vianeo  and  thence 
to  Tagliacozzi,  who  first  published  the  method 
in  1597. 

d.  1460. — Bartolommeo  Montagnana  Anatomist  and  sur- 


66 


Mediaeval  Medicine 


geon.  He  described  strangulated  hernia  and 
operated  for  lachrymal  fistula. 

d.  1463. — Gilbert  Kymer,  M.D.Oxon.  Dean  of  Salisbury 
and  a Chancellor  of  the  University  of  Oxford. 
Rector  of  the  Faculty  of  Medicine  in  London. 
Physician  to  Humphry,  Duke  of  Gloucester, 
the  founder  of  the  first  public  library  at  Oxford. 

fi.  1470. — Benevenuto  Grassi.  A physician  of  Salerno 
and  writer  on  ophthalmology.  His  work  “ De 
oculorum  egritudinibus  ” was  printed  in  1475. 
In  his  “ Practica  oculorum”  he  mentions 
amblyopia  and  amaurosis. 

d.  1484. — Johannes  Arculanus  of  Verona.  Professor  of 
Medicine  at  Bologna  and  Padua.  He  described 
gold  fillings  for  teeth. 

ca.  1470-1490  (?).— Yalescus  de  Taranta.  Born  in  Por- 
tugal, taught  and  practised  at  Montpellier. 
Physician  to  Charles  VI  of  France.  Author 
of  a treatise  on  the  plague  and  “ Philonium,” 
a work  on  medicine  and  surgery  in  seven  books  ; 
suggested  the  extirpation  of  cancer  by  means 
of  a preparation  containing  arsenic. 

1428-1524.— Nicolaus  Leonicenus.  Physician  and  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Padua,  Bologna  and 
Ferrara.  A friend  of  Linacre.  Studied  syphilis, 
regarded  it  as  infectious,  and  wrote  a work  on 
the  subject  which  was  published  from  the 
Aldine  press  at  Venice  in  1497.  He  trans 
lated  the  aphorisms  of  Hippocrates,  and,  in 
67 


The  Renaissance 


spite  of  much  opposition,  pointed  out  the  errors 
in  botany  made  by  Pliny  in  his  natural  history. 

1430149a. — Hieronymo  Manfredi.  Eminent  philosopher 
and  astrologer.  Professor  of  Medicine  at 
Bologna,  1463.  Published  a textbook  of  ana- 
tomy for  the  entertainment  of  the  Duke  of 
Bologna,  also  works  on  astrological  medicine. 
An  anatomical  manuscript  preserved  in  the 
Bodleian  Library  at  Oxford  has  recently  been 
printed. 

fl.  1450. — Ortolff  von  Bayrlandt.  Author  of  a popular 
work  on  midwifery  which  was  printed  before 
1500.  He  lived  in  Wurzburg. 

ca.  1450-1533.— Heinrich  von  Pfolspeundt.  Bavarian 
army  surgeon.  Treated  arrow  wounds  and 
alludes  to  gun-shot  wounds.  Describes  the 
operation  for  harelip  and  rhinoplasty. 

1450-1533. — Hieronymus  of  Brunschweig,  or  Jerome 
of  Brunswick.  An  Alsatian  army  surgeon. 
Author  of  an  illustrated  work  on  surgery  and 
one  on  herbs,  simples,  and  the  art  of  distilla- 
tion. He  describes  gunshot  wounds  and  taught 
that  they  were  poisoned,  a subject  of  surgical 
controversy  until  the  nineteenth  century.  The 
first  edition  of  the  “ Buch  der  Chirurgie”  was 
printed  at  Strasburg,  1497,  and  was  translated 
into  English  in  1525.  The  English  version  of 
his  book  on  distillation  was  published  in  1527, 
and  is  also  an  illustrated  herbal. 


68 


The  Renaissance 


d.  1526. — Eucharius  osslin,  or  Rhodion  of  Frank- 

furt and  Worms.  Author  of  the  “ Rose- 
garten,”  an  illustrated  textbook  on  obstetrics, 
which  had  a wide  circulation  and  was  trans- 
lated and  plagiarized.  It  is  mainly  a compi- 
lation from  Soranus  of  Ephesus.  The  first 
edition  was  printed  in  Augsburg  in  1502. 

fl.  1500. — Hans  von  Gersdorff.  German  Surgeon.  An 
experienced  and  successful  operator.  After 
amputation  he  applied  a bandage  without 
sutures,  and  checked  haemorrhage  by  a caustic 
plaster  or  actual  cautery.  Taught  that  gunshot 
wounds  were  not  poisoned.  Published  the 
“Feldtbuch  der  Wundarztney  ” in  1517,  a book 
on  military  surgery,  which  is  curiously  illus- 
trated. His  works  were  translated  into  Dutch 
and  Latin. 

1452-1519. — Leonardo  da  Vinci.  Equally  great  as  an 
anatomist  and  original  dissector  of  the  human 
body  and  as  a painter.  He  inspired  the  work 
of  Vesalius.  His  notes  on  the  drawings  of  his 
dissections  are  interesting  examples  of  “ mirror- 
writing.” His  MS.  “ Quaderni  d’Anatomia,” 
is  now  in  the  library  at  Windsor  Castle. 

1473-1506. — Mark  Antonio  della  Torre.  Anatomist  of 
Verona.  Remembered  for  his  association  with 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  whose  anatomical  drawings 
were  intended  to  illustrate  a work  by  della 
Torre.  He  died  before  it  was  written. 


69 


The  Renaissance 


ca.  1460-1519. — Gioyanni  de  Vigo,  of  Rapallo,  near 
Genoa.  John  of  Yigo.  Surgeon  and  physician 
to  Pope  J ulius  II.  Introduced  the  crown  trepan 
and  wrote  a textbook  of  surgery  in  Latin 
which  was  translated  and  passed  through  many 
editions. 

1460-1524. — Thomas  Linacre.  Born  in  Canterbury. 

Studied  in  Oxford  and  Italy. 
Physician  to  Henry  VIII.  Char- 
ter of  incorporation  granted  to 
the  College  of  Physicians,  Lon- 
don, through  his  influence,  Sept. 
23,  1518,  and  was  the  first  Pre- 
sident. Translated  the  “ Oath  of 
Hippocrates,”  and  the  “ Mefcho- 
dus  Medendi  ” and  founded  three 
lectureships  in  medicine  at  Oxford 
and  Cambridge.  He  was  a friend 
of  Erasmus  and  was  as  well 
known  for  his  classical  as  for  his  medical  know- 
ledge. He  was  admitted  to  priests’  orders  about 
1509  and  held  several  positions  of  dignity  in 
the  Church. 

1460-1525. — Alexander  Benedetti  of  Legnago.  Surgeon 
and  anatomist.  Professor  at  Padua.  Operated 
for  hernia,  stone  and  rhinoplasty.  Physician 
to  Emperor  Maximilian.  Wrote  a book  on 
anatomy  and  a treatise  on  the  plague. 


70 


The  Renaissance 


1462- 1536. — Johannes  Manardus,  of  Ferrara.  Physician 

to  King  Ladislaus,  of  Hungary.  Advocated 
the  observation  of  Nature,  and  revived  the 
methods  of  Hippocrates. 

1462. — First  calendar  indicating  times  for  letting  blood. 

Printed  at  Mainz. 

1463- 1525. — Alexander  Achillini.  “ The  great  philoso- 

pher.” Pupil  of  Mundinus.  Professor  of 
philosophy  at  Bologna  and  Padua.  Described 
the  duct  of  the  submaxillary  gland  which 
was  re-described  by  Thomas  Wharton  in 
1656.  Wrote  a commentary  on  Mundinus  in 
1522,  and  a student’s  note-book  on  anatomy 
1516. 

1464- 1534. — Otto  Brunfels.  Physician.  Distinguished 

for  his  work  in  botany,  which  he  embodied 
in  his  “ Herbarum  Vivas  leones,”  Strasburg, 
1530-36,  illustrated  with  woodcuts.  He  was 
originally  a monk,  became  a follower  of 
Luther,  graduated  in  medicine  at  Bale  and 
was  appointed  city  physician  at  Berne  in 
1 533- 

1468-1505.  Gabriel  Zerbi.  Professor  of  anatomy  and 
logic  at  Padua,  Bologna  and  Rome.  Was  sent 
by  the  Venetians  to  Constantinople  to  attend  a 
Turkish  Pasha  ; an  apparent  cure  was  effected, 
but  the  Turk  died  later  and  Zerbi  and  his  sons 
were  pursued  and  massacred.  Wrote  a book  on 
anatomy  with  some  original  observations  (1502), 
and  a work  entitled  *•  Cautelae  medicorum.” 


7i 


The  Renaissance 


1472-1549.—  John  Chambre.  Born  in  Northumberland  : 
educated  at  Oxford,  and  took 
his  M.D.  degree  at  Padua.  Phy- 
sician to  Henry  VIII.  Dean 
of  St.  Stephen’s,  Westminster. 
Mentioned  first  of  the  six 
physicians  in  the  letters  patent 
granted  to  the  Royal  College  of 
Physicians  of  London  in  1518. 


1473-1560. — Francisco  Lopez  de  Yillalobos.  Physician 
in  ordinary  to  Charles  V and  Philip  II.  One 
of  the  earliest  to  describe  syphilis  in  a book 
entitled  “ El  sumario  de  la  medicina  con  un 
tratado  sobre  los  pestiferas  bubas.”  Printed 
Salamanca,  1498. 

ca.  1494.—  Diego  Alvarez  Chanca  of  Seville.  Physician 
to  Christopher  Columbus  and  author  of  the 
first  written  document  about  the  flora,  the 
fauna,  the  ethnology  and  the  anthropology  of 
America.  It  is  in  the  form  of  a letter  to  the 
municipal  authority  of  Seville. 

1473. — First  edition  of  Avicenna’s  Canon  printed  at 
• Pavia. 

1478. -First  edition  of  Celsus  printed  at  Florence. 

1478. — Mondino’s  “ Anathomia  ” printed  at  Leipzig. 

1478-1522. — Pierre  Brissot.  Physician.  Practised  in 

72 


The  Renaissance 


Paris.  Revived  the  Hippocratic  method  of 
bleeding,  which  was  derivative  or  near  the 
lesion  for  which  it  was  undertaken,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  Arabic  teaching  that  it  should  be 
revulsive  or  at  a distance  from  the  lesion.  The 
teaching  was  considered  to  be  subversive  and 
led  to  a prolonged  controversy, 
ca.  1551. — Luis  Lobera  d’Avila.  Physician  in  ordinary 
to  Charles  V.  He  described  syphilis  and  its 
cure  by  inunction.  He  also  wrote  among 
other  works  “ Vanquetos  de  nobles  Caval- 
leros,”  ca.  1530,  which  contains  several  wood- 
cuts  of  surgical  operations.” 

1478-1555  —Jacobus  Sylvius,  or  Jacques  Dubois.  Born 

near  Amiens.  Anatomist. 
Teacher  of  Vesalius  and  Servetus 
at  Paris.  Author  of  “ Isagoge 
anatomica,”  several  books  on 
pharmacy  and  treatises  on  Hippo- 
crates and  Galen.  The  names  he 
gave  to  many  anatomical  struc- 
tures are  still  retained.  He  knew 
the  valves  of  the  heart  and  taught 
of  the  foramen  ovale  in  the  foetal 
heart.  He  is  not  to  be  confused 
with  Franciscus  Sylvius  [1614- 
1672]  after  whom  the  fissure  of  Sylvius  is  called. 
Substituted  human  bodies  for  pigs  in  his  dissec- 
tions. An  uncompromising  Galenist,  miser  and 
of  barbaric  manners. 


73 


The  Renaissance 


1480  (?)-1550. — Berengarius  of  Carpi,  Giacomo  Beren- 
gario.  Anatomist  and  surgeon.  He  extirpated 
the  prolapsed  uterus  and  treated  syphilis— Ben- 
venuto Cellini  amongst  others — by  mercurial 
inunction.  Professor  at  Bologna,  1502-1527, 
and  Pavia.  He  wrote  a treatise  on  fracture  of 
the  skull  and  a commentary  on  the  anatomy  of 
Mundinus,  in  which  he  substituted  drawings 
from  nature  in  place  of  the  traditional  schemata. 
First  to  describe  the  appendix  and  hepatic 
circulation,  the  os  basilare  and  the  sphenoidal 
sinus. 

fl.  1480. — Ketham,  Johannes  de.  German  physician, 
who  practised  at  Venice.  Edited  in  1491 
“Fasciculus  medicinse,”  a collection  of  current 
writings  by  the  medical  men  of  his  time.  The 
book  contains  anatomical  illustrations  and  fine 
wood  engravings.  There  are  several  editions 
in  Latin  and  Italian  with  varying  blocks. 
The  drawings  themselves  have  a long  and 
interesting  antecedent  history. 

1481.— First  edition  of  Rhazes  in  Latin  printed  at  Milan. 

1485.  Caxton  printed  at  Westminster  the  first  book 

on  medicine  in  English  : “ A litil  boke  for 
the  pestilence.’’ 

1486.  Epidemic  of  Sweating  Sickness  in  England. 

1486-1535.— Heinrich  Cornelius  Agrippa  von  Nettes- 
heim.  Physician,  astrologer  and  alchemist. 
He  practised  at  Freiburg,  Lyons  and  Paris, 


74 


The  Renaissance 


and  wrote  “ De  vanitate  scientiarum  ” and 
“ Occulta  philosophia.” 

1491. — First  dated  edition  of  Ketham’s  “Fasciculus 

medicinae  ” printed  at  Venice, 
d.  1515. — Sir  William  Butts,  M.D.,  Cambridge.  Prin- 
cipal of  St.  Mary’s  Hostel,  Cam- 
bridge. Physician  to  Henry  VIII 
and  Princess  Mary,  afterwards 
Queen  Mary,  a friend  of  Wolsey, 
Cranmer  and  Latimer  and  a 
patron  of  Sir  John  Cheke.  He 
appears  in  Holbein’s  picture  in 
the  Barber-Surgeons’  Hall,  and 
is  introduced  by  Shakespeare  into 
the  play  of  “ Henry  VIII.” 
Knighted  ca.  1545. 

1181-1553. — Fracastorius,  or  Girolamo  Fracastoro  of 

Yerona.  He  wrote  in  1530 
“ Syphilis  sive  Morbus  Gallicus,” 
whence  the  name  of  the  disease  is 
derived.  As  a geologist  he  ac- 
counted for  the  presence  of  fossils 
in  a modern  spirit  and  as  a phy- 
sicist he  referred  to  the  magnetic 
poles  of  the  earth.  His  works 
have  been  frequently  reprinted. 


75 


The  Renaissance 


1487-1574. —Johannes  Guinterius,  or  John  Winter  of 
Andernach.  Professor  of  Greek  at  Louvain 
and  afterwards  of  Medicine  at  Paris  and  of 
Anatomy  at  Strasburg.  He  was  physician  to 
Francis  I and  Henry  II  of  France.  Servetus 
and  Vesalius  were  his  pupils  and  prosectors. 
Author  of  “ De  Medicina  veteri  et  nova,”  1571, 
and  “ Institutiones  anatomicae,”  1536. 

ca.  1545.— Walther  Hermann  Ryff.  Physician  and 
surgeon  of  Strasburg.  Author  of  works  on 
anatomy,  surgery,  obstetrics  and  distilling. 
His  works,  illustrated  with  woodcuts,  were 
first  printed  at  Strasburg  and  Frankfort  in 
WG- 


1490  1549. — Andrew  Boorde.  Suffragan  Bishop  of  Chi- 
chester : Carthusian  monk,  traveller  and  phy- 
sician. Author  of  “A  Breviarie  of  Health,” 
1547,  and  a “ Compendyous  regimen*  or  a 
dietary  of  health,”  1542.  He  sent  rhubarb 
seeds  from  Spain  to  England  nearly  two  hun- 
dred years  before  the  plant  was  cultivated  here. 
He  is  supposed,  but  absurdly,  says  Mr.  F.  J. 
Furnivall,  to  have  been  the  original  “Merry 
Andrew.” 

ca.  1560.— Joost  van  Lom.  City  physician  of  Tournai 
and  Brussels.  Author  of  works  on  fevers  and 
general  medicine  which  ran  through  many 
editions. 


76 


The  Renaissance 


1491.  — First  edition  of  Hortus  Sanitatis  printed  at  Mainz. 

1492.  — First  edition  of  John  Gaddesden  s Rosa  Ang- 

liea  printed. 

1492. — Syphilis  first  appeared  in  Europe. 

d.  1545. — Jean  Tagault,  or  Tagaultius.  Professor  of 
Surgery  in  the  University  of  Paris  and  Dean 
of  the  Medical  Faculty.  He  wrote  a book 
on  surgery  in  Latin.  It  passed  through  several 
editions  and  was  translated  into  French, 
Italian  and  Dutch.  It  became  the  standard 
textbook  for  English  students  in  the  sixteenth 
century  and  is  often  quoted. 

ca.  1580  — Francois  Rousset.  Surgeon  to  the  Duke  of 
Savoy  and  later  in  life  practised  in  Paris.  He 
was  amongst  the  first  to  practise  abdominal 
surgery.  He  performed  successfully  fifteen 
Caesarean  sections. 

1490-1555.  — Georg  Agricola  of  Glauchau,  in  Saxony. 

The  father  of  Mineralogy.  Phy- 
sician and  mineralogist.  Dis- 
coverer of  bismuth.  He  wrote 
“ De  re  metallica,”  a treatise  on 
earthquakes  and  a book  on  the 
plague.  He  served  as  city  phy- 
sician and  royal  historiographer 
at  Chemnitz. 


77 


The  Renaissance 


ca.  1500. — Angelo  Bolognini.  Professor  of  surgery  at 
Bologna  from  1493.  Military  surgeon. 

1493-1541. — Theophrastus  Bombast  von  Hohenheim, 

Paracelsus.  Physician,  surgeon, 
alchemist  and  astrologer.  In  his 
early  days  wandered  throughout 
Europe.  In  1527  became  city 
physician  and  professor  at  Bale. 
Burnt  the  works  of  Galen,  Avi- 
cenna and  other  fathers  of  medi- 
cine before  the  students  in  his 
lecture  room.  Associated  with  an 
overwhelming  sense  of  self-im- 
portance, his  writings  bear  evi- 
dence of  an  independent  spirit, 
originality,  and  great  force  of  character.  He 
abandoned  the  teaching  of  the  ancients  and 
claimed  to  be  a reformer  and  a true  follower 
of  Nature.  He  originated  many  improvements 
in  the  pharmacy  of  his  time.  He  was  one  of 
the  first  to  make  simple  extracts  of  drugs  and 
tinctures. 

d.  1562. — Thomas  Yicary.  Surgeon  to  Henry  VIII, 
Edward  VI,  Queens  Mary  and  Elizabeth. 
First  surgeon  to  St.  Bartholomew’s  Hospital 
after  the  Dissolution.  Published  “ The  Eng- 
lishman’s Treasure,  or  the  true  anatomy  of 
man's  body,”  1548,  abridged  from  an  early 
work  on  the  subject  written  in  English. 

78 


The  Renaissance 


Master  of  the  Barber-Surgeons  Company.  In 
Holbein’s  picture,  Henry  VIII  is  presenting  a 
document  to  Vicary,  whose  portrait  is  care- 
fully painted. 

1493- 1571. — Arcaeus,  Francisco  Arceo,  of  Fregenal, 

Spain.  Surgeon  and  successful  operator.  His 
name  is  perpetuated  in  the  Balsamum  Arcaei 
(unguentum  elemi).  His  treatise  on  wounds 
was  translated  into  English  in  1588  and  in- 
cludes a method  of  treating  club-foot  with  a 
shoe  which  he  invented  for  the  purpose. 

ca.  1510  (?). — Gonzalo  Fernandez.  Introduced  the  use 
of  guaiacum  in  the  treatment  of  syphilis. 

1494- 1553. — Francois  Rabelais.  Originally  a monk. 
Studied  medicine  and  became 
professor  at  the  University  of 
Montpellier.  Held  the  chair  of 
pathology  for  a year  at  least  and 
lectured  on  the  Greek  text  of 
the  Hippocratic  Prognostics  to 
crowded  audiences.  Later  he  was 
attached  to  the  Lyons  Hospital. 
He  displayed  profound  knowledge 
of  the  medical  sciences  of  his 
time.  Cure  of  Meudon  as  well  as 
practising  physician.  The  great 

exponent  of  Renaissance  humanism.  One 
of  the  first  to  translate  the  Aphorisms  of 


79 


The  Renaissance 


Hippocrates,  Lyons,  1532.  Famous  also  as  the 
author  of  “ Gargantua  et  Pantagruel.” 


1597-1558. — Fernelius,  Jean  Francois  Fernel.  Professor 

of  iogic  and  afterwards  of  medi- 
cine at  Paris.  Physician  to 
Henry  II  and  Catherine  de 
Medici.  He  taught  that  physi- 
cians should  stud)'  the  human 
body  and  not  accept  tradition. 
He  also  stated  that  the  cause  of 
disease  was  to  be  looked  for  in 
the  body  itself  and  not  in  the 
fluids  occasioned  by  the  disease. 
His  learning  and  scholarship  were 
so  great  that  the  contemporary 
physicians  said  of  him,  that,  “ Faeces  Arabum 
melle  Latinitatis  condidit.” 


1597- 1565. — Michel  Angelo  Biondo.  Born  in  Venice. 

Practised  at  Naples  and  Rome.  Used  warm 
and  cold  water  in  the  treatment  of  wounds. 
He  translated  into  Italian  the  history  of  plants, 
written  by  Theophrastos. 

1598- 1560. — Hieronymus  Bock,  or  Tragus.  Physician  of 

Zweibrucken.  Studied  botany  and  became 
superintendent  of  the  gardens  of  the  prince. 
He  wrote  the  “ Neuer  Kreutterbuch  ” (1539). 

1599- 1569.  Nicolo  Massa.  Professor  of  anatomy  and 

surgery  at  Padua.  Author  of  works  on  the 


80 


The  Renaissance 


prostate  and  on  contagious  diseases,  including 
plague,  small-pox  and  syphilis.  For  the  latter 
he  recommended  preparations  of  mercury  and 
sarsaparilla.  Discovered  the  lymphatics  of 
kidney,  1532.  Author  of  “ Anatomiae  liber 
introductorius  ” (1559),  “ De  Gallico  Morbo  ” 
(1:559),  and  “ Epistolae  Medicinales  ” (1542). 

1559-1519. — Magnus  Hundt.  Studied  philosophy,  medi- 
cine and  theology  at  Leipsic.  He  published  in 
1529  “ Nuetzlich  Regiment  ” which  contains 
references  to  syphilis  and  ihe  sweating  sick- 
ness. Hundt  published  some  very  crude  ana- 
tomical illustrations  in  his  “ Anthropologia  de 
Hominis  . . . Natura,”  1501. 

ca.  1580.  — Laurentius  Phryesen.  City  physician  of 
Metz.  Anatomist  w:ho  published  in  1518 
“ Spiegel  der  Artzny,”  containing  two  wood- 
cuts,  which  are  much  superior  to  any  then 
known,  and  are  a great  improvement  on  those 
of  Hundt. 

b.  1530. — Leonardo  Botallo.  Prebendary  of  the  Abbey 
of  St.  Marie  de  Chelles,  near  Meux.  Author  of 
“ De  via  sanguinis  a dextro  ad  sinistrum 
cordis  ventriculum,”  Venice,  1640,  in  which 
he  describes  the  duct  which  bears  his  name. 
He  revived  the  disputes  about  venesection  by 
recommending  it  in  almost  all  diseases,  advo- 
cating the  withdrawal  of  large  quantities  of 
blood  four  or  five  times  in  an  acute  attack. 

1500  - 1555.— Antonio  Musa  Brassavola,  of  Ferrara. 


F 


The  Renaissance 


The  first  of  his  time  to  reintroduce  tracheo- 
tomy. He  wrote  on  syphilis,  and  published 
a botanical  treatise  in  the  form  of  an  imaginary 
dialogue,  a method  which  was  followed  by 
Gale,  Bullin  and  other  medical  practitioners 
in  England  a few  years  later. 

1500-1558.  — Jacob  Rueff.  Surgeon  and  author  of  a 
work  on  midwifery,  in  which  he  describes 
smooth  and  toothed  forceps  for  the  extraction 
of  the  dead  foetus.  Town  physician  at  Zurich. 
He  also  cut  for  stone  and  wrote  comedies, 
some  of  which  were  played.  He  recommends 
cephalic  in  addition  to  podalic  version. 

1500- 1569. — Yidus  Vidius,  or  Guido  Guidi,  of  Florence. 

Chief  physician  to  Francis  I and  Cosmo  di 
Medici.  Professor  of  medicine  in  the  College 
de  France  which  he  reorganized.  He  wrote 
on  anatomy,  and  has  given  the  name  to  the 
Vidian  canal  and  the  Vidian  nerve.  A friend 
of  Benvenuto  Cellini,  who  was  godfather  to  his 
daughter.  He  published  his  “ Chirurgia,”  which 
was  printed  by  Pierre  Gauthier,  1544,  and  an 
illustrated  anatomy  edited  by  his  nephew,  1611. 
and  a Fatin  translation  of  the  Surgery  of  Hippo- 
crates. 

1501- 1566. — Leonhard  Fuchs.  Professor  of  Medicine  at 

Tubingen.  Botanist  and  author  of  “ De  His- 
toria  Stirpium,”  Basel,  1542,  written  to  teach 
medical  botany.  It  is  illustrated  with  fine  wood- 
cuts.  He  also  wrote  commentaries  on  Galen  and 
Hippocrates. 


82 


The  Renaissance 


1501-1576. — Hieronymus  Cardanus  of  Pavia.  Pro- 
fessor at  Milan  in  1534.  He  professed  a firm 
belief  in  astrology,  which  he  called  to  his 
aid  in  the  explanation  of  symptoms  and  the 
administration  of  laxatives. 

1501-1577. — Pietro  Andrea  Mattioli.  Botanist  and  author 
of  the  well-known  commentary  on  Dioscorides, 
Venice,  1544,  which  passed  through  many 
editions. 

1501-1580. — Christobal  de  Yega.  Physician  and  author 
of  a work  entitled  “ De  arte  medendi  liber.” 

1503- 1564.— Charles  Estienne.  Stephanus  of  Paris. 

A pupil  of  Sylvius.  Professor  of  anatomy. 
Author  of  “ De  dissectione  partium  corporis 
humani,”  1545,  which  contains  a description  of 
syringomyelia.  Described  the  difference  be- 
tween the  white  and  grey  matter  of  the  brain. 
An  ardent  Galenist,  but  made  some  original 
discoveries. 

1504- 1583. — Francois  Yalleriola.  Professor  of  medicine 

in  Turin  and  author  of  several  works.  He 
wrote  “ Enarrationum  medicinalium  libri  sex,” 
Lyons,  1554,  “Loci  medicinae  communes, 
tribus  libris  digesti,”  Lyons,  1562. 

1505  (?)  1584. — Richard  Caldwell,  M.B.Oxon.  President 
of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians,  London, 
1570.  He  founded,  with  the  assistance  of  Lord 
Lumley,  the  lectureship  on  surgery  at  the 
College  of  Physicians  of  London  still  known 
as  the  Lumleian  lecture.  William  Harvey 

83 


The  Renaissance 


announced  his  discovery  of  the  circulation  of 
the  blood  whilst  acting  as  a Lumleian  lecturer. 

1505- — Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  Edinburgh  founded, 

1505(?)-1551(?)- — Pierre  Franco.  Born  in  Provence.  Prac- 
tised in  Berne,  Freiburg,  Lausanne  and  Orange. 
Surgeon  and  Huguenot.  The  first  surgeon  of 
his  time  to  perforin  suprapubic  lithotomy.  He 
also  wrote  on  hernia.  He  was  a surgical  genius 
and  a bold  operator,  though  an  unlettered  man. 

1507-1566. — Guillaume  Rondelet.  Professor  of  ana- 
tomy at  Montpellier.  Writer  on  Natural 
History  and  author  of  “ De  Piscibus  Marinis 
Libri  XVIII”  (Lyons,  1554)  and  “ Methodus 
curandorum  omnium  morborum  corporis  humani 
in  tres  libros  distincta  ” Paris,  1575.  A friend 
of  Rabelais. 

1507-1587- — Thomas  Gale.  Army  surgeon  under  Henry 
VIII  and  Queen  Elizabeth  and 
Master  of  the  Barber  Surgeons 
Company.  Opposed  the  theory 
that  gunshot  wounds  were  poi- 
soned and  advocated  simple  treat- 
ment. Author  of  “ An  excellent 
treatise  of  wounds  made  with 
gunshot,”  1563,  “An  Enchiridion 
of  Chirurgerie,”  1563,  “ The  Insti- 
tution of  Chirurgerie,”  which  is 
written  in  the  form  of  a dialogue, 
and  other  treatises. 


84 


The  Renaissance 


1509-1553 . — Michael  Seryetus.  Born  at  Villanueva  Da 
Sigena  in  Aragon.  Physician  and 
theologian.  First  of  the  Unitar- 
ians. He  pointed  out  that  the 
blood  passed  into  the  heart  after 
being  mixed  with  air  in  the 
lungs.  He  graduated  M.B.  at 
Lyons  under  the  name  of  Michel 
Villeneuve,  practised  at  Paris, 
wrote  a treatise  on  syrups.  Fel- 
low prosector  with  Vesalius  to 
Winter  in  Paris.  Lectured  on 
and  edited  works  of  Ptolemy. 
Wrote  the  “ Christianismi  Restitutio”  in  1553 
and  was  burnt  alive  at  Geneva  as  a heretic  at 
the  instigation  of  Calvin. 

1509-1590- — Ambroise  Pare.  Famous  military  surgeon. 

Born  at  Bourg-Hersent,  Maine. 
As  a barber-surgeon  became  at- 
tached to  the  Army  at  the  age 
of  19.  Appointed  surgeon  to  King 
Henry  II;  and  afterwards  to 
Francis  II  and  Charles  IX  of 
France.  He  discarded  the  use 
of  boiling  oil  as  a cautery  after 
amputations  and  reintroduced 
the  use  of  the  ligature  and  em- 
ployed cold  dressings.  Improved 
the  method  of  trepanning  and 
devised  numerous  instruments.  It  is  claimed 


85 


The  Renaissance 


for  him  that  he  was  the  first  to  practise  forced 
delivery  in  protracted  labour  and  to  observe 
metastatic  abscesses  in  cases  of  blood-poisoning 
from  wounds. 

1510-1558- — Robert  Recorde,  M.D.Camb.  Fellow  of 
All  Souls,  Oxford,  Physician  to  Edward  YI 
and  Mary.  Author  of  “ The  Judicial  of  Urines." 
1548,  “ Urinal  of  Physic,”  1548,  “ The  Castle 
of  Knowledge,”  “ The  Whetstone  of  Wit,”  also 
works  on  arithmetic,  anatomy  and  auricular 
contession.  Died  in  a debtors’  prison. 

1510T573  — John  Caius  or  Keys,  M.D. Padua.  Studied 
in  Italy  where  he  was  diligent  in  seeking  com- 
plete and  correct  versions  of  Galen  and  Hippo- 
crates. Nine  times  President  of  the  College 
of  Physicians,  London.  Founder  and  first 
Master  of  Caius  College,  Cambridge,  1557. 
Lectured  on  anatomy  for  nearly  twenty  years 
at  the  Barber-Surgeons’  Hall  in  London. 
Wrote  a treatise  on  the  Sweating  Sickness 
and  another  on  “ English  Dogs.” 

1510-1580—  GioYanni  Fillippo  Ingrassias,  of  Recal- 
buto,  Sicily.  Called  “ The  Sicilian  Hippo- 
crates.” Osteologist  and  myologist.  Pupil  of 
Vesalius.  Professor  at  Naples.  Discovered 
the  stapes.  Saved  his  country  from  plague  in 
1575.  Was  Protomedicus  of  Sicily,  1563,  and 
became  Physician  to  Philip  II.  The  processes 
of  Ingrassias  still  remain  in  anatomical  nomen- 
clature. 


86 


The  Renaissance 


1511-1568.  — Amatus  Lusitanus.  A Portugese  Jew. 

Studied  at  Salamanca.  Practised  at  Ragusa 
in  Dalmatia  and  afterwards  at  Salonica.  Pie 
wrote  on  Dioscorides  and  studied  the  valves 
in  the  blood-vessels.  His  book  “ Curationum 
medicinalium  centurise  septem  ” 1566,  passed 
through  eleven  editions. 

1511-1575. — Hadrian  Junius.  Called  “The  Light  of 
Holland.”  Pupil  of  Fernelius,  physician  to  the 
Duke  of  Norfolk,  afterwards  Rector  of  the  Latin 
School  at  Haarlem,  and  historian  of  the  States 
of  Holland.  Town  physician  at  Haarlem  and 
Middleburg.  He  wrote  a treatise  correcting 
various  mistakes  in  preceding  medical  writers 
as  well  as  an  essay  on  the  hair, 
ca.  1540-1560. — Thomas  Geminus.  Probably  an  Italian, 
who  is  said  to  have  settled  in  London,  though 
he  calls  himself  “ of  Leeds.”  Published  his 
“Compendiosa  totius  Anatomie  delineatio  aere 
exarata  ” in  1545.  The  first  edition  is  dedi- 
cated to  King  Henry  VIII,  and  is  one  of 
the  earliest  books  containing  copper  plates 
produced  in  England.  The  first  to  engrave  the 
illustrations  of  Yesalius  on  copper. 

1513-1572. — Giovanni  Argenterio  of  Castelnuovo  in 
Piedmont.  Professor  of  Medicine  in  Pisa, 
Naples,  Rome  and  Turin.  He  opposed  Galen’s 
theories  as  to  the  cause  of  disease  and  held 
that  medicine  lay  intermediate  between  a science 
and  an  art. 


87 


The  Sixteenth  Century 

1514- 1564. — Andreas  Yesalius  of  Brussels.  Famous 

Anatomist.  He  declared  that 
Galen’s  Anatomy  was  based  on 
the  lower  animals  and  was  the 
first  to  use  woodcuts  drawn  from 
nature  to  illustrate  his  works. 
He  revised  the  old  theories  on 
anatomy,  and  replaced  them  by 
new  and  original  facts  based  on 
his  own  experience.  Became 
Professor  of  Anatomy  at  Padua, 
and  also  taught  at  Pisa  and 
Bologna.  His  work  was  vigor- 

ously opposed.  He  was  appointed  Physician 
to  Charles  V,  gave  up  the  study  of  anatomy, 
and  died  at  Zante  whilst  returning  from  a 
pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem.  Author  of  “ De 
Humani  Corporis  Fabrica,”  1543,  of  which 
an  edition  on  better  paper  was  issued  in  1555. 

15151544- — Valerius  Cordus.  Discoverer  of  sulphuric 
ether  and  the  inventor  of  phytography.  He 
wrote  a commentary  on  Dioscorides  published 
in  1561  by  Gesner.  It  describes  500  new 
species  of  plants.  His  “Dispensatorium,”  1524, 
was  recognized  as  an  official  pharmacopoeia  for 
that  city  by  the  Senate  of  Nuremberg. 

1515- 1579. — Gianbattista  Canano.  Professor  at  Ferrara 

and  physician  to  the  Duke  of  Ferrara  and  Pope 
Julius  III.  Described  the  valves  in  the  vena 
azygos  in  1546  and  studied  their  action. 

88 


The  Sixteenth  Century 

1515- 1588. — Wierus  or  Johann  Weyer  of  Grave  in 

Brabant.  Opposed  belief  in  witches.  Author 
of  works  on  epidemic  diseases,  sweating  sickness 
and  scurvy.  Travelled  in  Africa  and  Greece  and 
became  physician  to  Duke  William  of  Cleves. 

1516- 1552.— Bartolommeo  Maggi,  of  Bologna.  Surgeon. 

Contradicted  the  theory  that  all  gunshot  wounds 
were  poisoned.  Advocated  the  employment  of 
soft  oiled  dressings. 

1516-(?)  1559. — Realdus  Columbus  or  Matteo  Realdo 
Colombo  of  Cremona.  Anatomist.  Pupil, 
deputy  and  successor  to  Vesalius  at  Padua 
and  Professor  in  Rome,  1548.  Described  the 
thyroid  gland  and  was  the  first  to  demon- 
strate that  blood  passed  from  the  lungs  into 
the  pulmonary  veins  ; possibly  borrowed  this 
idea  from  Servetus.  Used  dogs  for  vivisec- 
tion instead  of  hogs.  Author  of  “ De  re 
anatomica,”  1559,  which  was  long  used  as  a 
text-book  and  is  an  imitation  of  Vesalius, 
whom  he  opposed. 

1516-1565-— Conrad  Gesner  of  Zurich.  Physician,  medi- 
cal biographer  and  naturalist,  called  “ The 
German  Pliny.”  Professor  of  Natural  History 
at  Zurich.  The  first  to  attempt  classification 
in  natural  philosophy  and  to  describe  the  canary 
bird.  A man  of  extraordinary  industry  whose 
volumes  on  the  history  of  plants  and  the  history 
of  animals  long  remained  text-books  and  were 
translated  from  the  Latin. 


89 


The  Sixteenth  Century 


1517- 1585-—  Rembert  Dodoens,  of  Malines,  Belgium. 

Anatomist,  physician  and  botanist.  Physician 
to  Maximillian  II  and  Rudolf  II.  His  illus- 
trated herbal  was  printed  in  1583. 

d.  1576  — William  Bullein.  Physician  and  botanist. 

Rector  of  Blaxhall,  Suffolk.  Author  of  “ Bul- 
warke  of  Defence  against  all  Sickness  etc.,” 
1562,  written  whilst  he  was  imprisoned  for 
debt  after  being  charged  with  murder.  All  his 
writings  are  excellent  reading. 

1518—  Royal  College  of  Physicians  of  England 

founded. 

15181564- — Pierre  Belon.  Natural  historian.  He  tra- 
velled through  Greece,  Egypt  and  Asia  Minor 
from  1546-1549  to  investigate  the  source  of 
drugs  and  to  search  for  plants  with  medicinal 
properties.  He  wrote  a book  “ De  Arboribus 
Coniferis  ” which  was  printed  in  Paris  in  1553. 

1518-1575- — Felix  Wuertz  of  Basle.  A clinical  surgeon. 

He  followed  Paracelsus  in  ignoring  the  earlier 
methods,  trusting  the  healing  power  of  Nature. 
Pus  he  regarded  as  a bad  sign,  fractures  he 
treated  with  splints,  performed  amputations  of 
the  thigh,  and  insisted  on  the  endeavour  to 
obtain  healing  by  first  intention. 

1519  1586.— Johann  Crato  von  Kraftheim.  Physician 
to  Ferdinand  I,  Maximillian  II  and  Rudolf  II. 
A member  of  the  Rudolphine  Academy  of 
Medicine  at  Prague. 


90 


The  Sixteenth  Century 


1520-1574-  — Bartolommeo  Eustachi.  Professor  of 
anatomy  at  Rome.  Discoverer  of  the  Eus- 
tachian tube,  the  origin  of  the  optic  nerve  and 
the  thoracic  duct  which,  however,  he  thought 
was  peculiar  to  the  horse.  He  prepared  a series 
of  thirty-eight  anatomical  plates  which  im- 
poverished him.  He  died  before  they  were 
published,  and  they  did  not  appear  until  1714 
when  Lancisi  issued  them  with  a Commentary. 
Published  a small  anatomical  work  in  1564, 
and  was  the  first  to  study  the  teeth. 

1520-1606. — Luis  Mercado  (Mercatus).  Physician  in 
ordinary  to  Philip  II  and  writer  of  works  on 
plague,  typhoid  and  other  epidemic  diseases. 

ca.  1520- — Augustine.  Physician  to  Cardinal  Wolsey. 

ca.  1560  — Juan  Yalverde  di  Hamusco  of  Castilla  la 
Yiega.  Eminent  Spanish  physician,  pupil  of 
Realdo  Colombo  and  Bartolommeo  Eustachi. 
Said  to  have  carried  the  knowledge  of  anatomy 
from  Italy  to  Spain.  Published  in  1560  “ Ana- 
tome,”  an  illustrated  abstract  of  Vesalius. 
Author  of  “ Historia  de  la  composicion  del 
cuerpo  humano,”  Rome,  1556. 

ca.  1562  — Thomas  Gibson,  of  Morpeth.  Physician  and 
printer.  He  printed  a concordance  to  the  New 
Testament  in  1535,  a treatise  on  the  pestilence 
in  1536  and  the  “ Great  Herbal”  in  1530. 

ca.  1564.—  Leonardo  Fiorayanti  of  Bologna.— Physician. 


91 


The  Sixteenth  Century 

Believed  that  syphilis  originated  from  feeding 
animals  upon  the  flesh  of  their  own  species. 

ca.  1568- — William  Turner.  Physician  and  botanist. 

Born  at  Morpeth,  educated  at  Cambridge. 
Practised  in  Germany  after  the  burning  of 
his  friend  Bishop  Ridley.  Became  Dean  of 
Wells.  Author  of  “ A New  Herbal,”  printed 
in  1551. 

1520- 1584. — Pedro  Ponce  of  Leon.  Benedictine  monk 

and  physician.  Founder  of  a system  of  in- 
struction for  the  deaf  and  dumb  based  upon 
that  of  Hieronymo  Cardano.  He  first  taught 
his  pupils  to  write,  then  pointed  out  to  them 
the  various  objects  represented  by  the  different 
words,  and  finally  conveyed  to  them  the  sounds 
corresponding  to  the  characters  by  observation 
of  the  motion  of  the  lips. 

1520  — 1590. — Jac.  Theod.  Tabernaemontanus.  Phy- 
sician to  Elector  of  Speyer.  Studied  and  wrote 
on  botany  and  medicinal  springs.  Author  of 
"Neu  Kreuterbuch,”  first  published  in  1588 
and  several  times  reissued. 

1521- 1580. — Jacob  Baumann.  Swiss  surgeon.  Educated 

at  Zurich  and  Bologna.  Practised  at  Nurem- 
berg. The  first  translator  into  German  of  the 
anatomy  of  Vesalius. 

1522T597- — Petrus  Forestus.  Dutch  physician,  educated 
in  Italy  and  practised  at  Delft.  He  collected  a 
series  of  cases  which  shows  him  to  have  been 


9 2 


The  Sixteenth  Century 

a great  clinical  physician  and  at  the  same  time 
gives  a clear  insight  into  medical  practice  at 
the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

1522- 1605- — Ulysses  Aldrovandi  of  Bologna.  Estab- 

lished a botanical  garden  at  Bologna  in  1567. 
Studied  zoology  as  well  as  botany  and  left  a 
collection  of  natural  curiosities  to  his  native 
city.  Author  of  “ Ornithologia  ” in  three  vols., 
1599-1603;  “ De  Insectis,”  1602;  and  “ De 
Piscibus  et  de  Cetis,”  1613. 

1523- 1562  — Gabrielle  Falloppius  of  Modena.  Surgeon 
and  professor  at  Ferrara,  Pisa 
and  Padua.  Made  important  and 
numerous  discoveries  which  added 
greatly  to  the  existing  knowledge 
of  anatomy.  The  oviducts  are 
still  called  after  his  name— the 
Falloppian  tubes  — though  they 
had  been  recognized  by  Galen, 
Soranus,  Rufus  and  Theophilus. 
First  to  describe  Poupart’s  liga- 
ment. Published  also  works  on 
anatomy,  pharmacy  and  medicine. 

1524- 1603- — Andreas  Caesalpinus.  Professor  of  medicine 

and  botany  at  Pisa  and  afterwards  at  Rome. 
Physician  to  Clement  VIII.  Classified  plants 
artificially  in  accordance  with  their  organs 
of  reproduction.  Claimed  by  the  Italians  as 
the  discoverer  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood 


93 


The  Sixteenth  Century 

before  Harvey.  Wrote  on  medicine,  plants 
and  metals. 

1526-1609  — Clusius,  Charles  de  l’Ecluse.  Botanist. 

Travelled  extensively  and  was  Director  of  the 
Court  Botanical  Gardens  at  Vienna,  and  after- 
wards Professor  of  Botany  at  Leyden.  Author 
of  “ Antidotarium  florentinum,”  1561,  and 
“ Aromatum  et  simplicium  aliquot  medicamen- 
torum  apud  Indos,”  1567. 

1528-1586. — Adam  Lonicerus.  Professor  of  mathematics 
at  Marburg.  Was  town  physician  at  Frankfort 
and  author  of  a “ Naturalis  historic  opus”  in 
2 vols,  1551,  also  the  “Neue  Krauterbuch,” 
Frankfort,  1 557. 

1528- 1591- — Anuce  Foes  or  Foesius.  Born  at  Mayence. 

Physician  to  Charles  III,  Duke  of  Loraine. 
He  published  in  1561  a Formulary  which  was 
one  of  the  last  unofficial  Pharmacopoeias;  also 
an  edition  of  Hippocrates,  1591-1624. 

1529- 1568  — John  Halle.  Surgeon,  of  Maidstone  in  Kent. 

He  published  in  1565  an  English  version  of 
Lanfranc’s  Surgery  and  added  to  it  a lively 
essay  entitled  “ An  Historiall  expostulation 
against  the  beastlye  abusers  both  of  chirurgerie 
and  physyke  in  oure  tyme.”  It  is  a philippic 
against  quacks  and  is  excellent  reading. 

1529-1583- — Laurent  Joubert  of  Yalenee.  Professor  and 
afterwards  Chancellor  of  the  School  of  Mont- 
pellier. He  wrote  a book  on  popular  errors  in 


94 


The  Sixteenth  Century 

medicine,  which  had  a very  large  circulation. 
He  asserted  that  foul  odours  were  no  certain 
evidence  of  putridity  and  rejected  Galen’s  doc- 
trine of  forces. 

1530-1589.— Julius  Caesar  Arantius.  Professor  of  medi- 
cine, surgery  and  anatomy  at  Bologna.  Remem- 
bered for  his  careful  work  on  the  valves  of  the 
heart  and  by  the  “ nodules  of  Arantius.”  First 
to  write  a description  of  the  coraco-brachialis  as 
a separate  muscle.  Published  “ De  humano 
Foetu,”  1571,  “ De  tumoribus,”  1581,  and  a 
commentary  on  Hippocrates’  “ On  wounds  of 
the  head,”  1579. 

1530-1598  — Johann  Schenk  of  Freiburg  in  Breisgau. 

Author  of  work  on  Monsters,  which  was  fre- 
quently reprinted. 

1530-1595  — Leonhard  Thurneysser,  of  Thurn.  Began 
as  a collector  of  herbs  for  Huber,  a physician 
of  Bale.  After  an  adventurous  career  he  settled 
at  Frankfurt-on-the-Oder  and  became  physician 
in  ordinary  to  the  Elector  Georg.  Later  he 
practised  as  an  astrologer  and  built  a laboratory 
in  Berlin,  where  he  established  its  first  botanical 
and  zoological  garden. 

1530-1606- — Heironymus  Mercurialis.  Professor  of 
medicine  at  Padua,  Bologna  and  Pisa.  Ex- 
ponent of  medical  gymnastics  and  the  author 
of  the  first  treatise  on  diseases  of  the  skin,  “ De 
morbis  cutaneis”  Venice,  1570. 


95 


lhe  Sixteenth  Century 

1533  1610.-  John  Banister  of  Nottingham.  Anatomist 

and  surgeon.  He  lectured  at  the 
Barber-Surgeons’  Hall.  Wrote 
several  works  on  surgery  of  which 
a collected  edition  was  published 
in  1633.  He  is  not  to  be  con- 
fused with  Richard  Banister  of 
Stamford,  who  wrote  on  diseases 
of  the  eye  and  died  in  1626. 
Served  as  army  surgeon  to  the 
Earl  of  Warwick’s  force  at  Havre 
and  Leicester’s  expedition  to  the 
Low  Countries.  Worked  in  Lon- 
don with  Wm.  Clowes.  Author  of  “ A needful, 
new  and  necessary  Treatise  on  Chirurgery,” 
1575,  “The  History  of  Man  sucked  from  the 
Sappe  of  the  most  approved  Anatomists,” 
1578,  and  “ A Compendious  Chirurgery,”  1585. 

1533- 1610. — Roch  le  Baillif  de  la  Riviere.  Physician  in 

ordinary  to  Henry  IV. 

1534- 1600  — Yolcher  Coyter  of  Groningen.  Town  phy- 

sician at  Nuremburg  and  surgeon  in  the  Lrench 
Army.  Pupil  of  Lalloppius,  Eustacbius  and 
Rondelet.  Author  of  ‘‘De  ossibus  et  cartila- 
ginibus,”  1566,  and  works  on  human  and  com- 
parative anatomy  in  which  he  made  great 
progress.  Described  the  corpus  luteum,  noted 
that  the  contraction  of  the  auricles  precedes 
that  of  the  ventricles  and  recorded  important 
observations  on  the  brain. 


96 


The  Sixteenth  Century 

1535-1617. — William  Butler,  of  County  Clare  in  Ireland. 

An  alchemist,  who  was  greatly  esteemed  by 
James  I.  Claimed  to  have  discovered  a stone, 
by  means  of  which  he  cured  the  most  dangerous 
diseases.  It  was  investigated  by  Sir  Ivenelm 
Digby. 

1535  1606. — Georg  Bartisch.  Surgeon  and  court-oculist 
to  the  Elector  of  Saxony.  Author  in  1583  of  an 
illustrated  book  on  ophthalmic  operations  “ The 
Augendienst,”  1583,  and  a skilful  operator  on 
the  eye.  He  distinguished  between  the  various 
forms  of  cataract,  and  operated  in  many  oph- 
thalmic diseases.  He  also  wrote  on  lithotomy. 
Sought  to  show  that  many  of  the  delusions 
about  witchcraft  were  attributable  to  errors  of 
sight. 

1540T604. — William  Clowes.  Came  of  a Warwickshire 
family:  served  in  France  in  1563  as  an  army 
surgeon  under  the  Earl  of  Warwick.  Surgeon 
to  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1596,  and  surgeon  to 
St.  Bartholomew’s  Hospital.  Author  of  “A 
proved  practice  for  all  young  chirurgians,” 
1591.  His  works  are  still  worth  reading  for 
their  graphic  details  of  the  practice  of  surgery 
in  England  in  the  sixteenth  century.  His 
son  William  Clowes  [1582-1648]  was  surgeon 
to  Henry,  Prince  of  Wales  and  to  Charles  I. 
1536-1614. — Guillaume  Baillou,  of  Paris.  Said  to  have 
been  the  first  to  demonstrate  post  mortem  the 
existence  of  croup,  and  in  1578  to  declare 


G 


97 


The  Sixteenth  Century 

whooping-cough  as  a hitherto  undescribed  form 
of  disease. 

1536  1614. — Felix  Plater.  Anatomist  and  Physician  to 
the  Margrave  of  Baden.  Professor  of  practical 
medicine  at  Bale.  Earliest  systematic  noso- 
logist.  He  divided  diseases  into  the  following 
three  classes  : (i)  the  Mind,  the  senses  and  of 
motion  ; (2)  Febrile,  and  diseases  of  the  fluids  ; 
(3)  Defects  of  formation  and  secretion.  He 
was  one  of  the  earliest  anatomists  in  Germany 
to  dissect  the  human  body.  The  family  of 
Plater  gave  four  generations  of  distinguished 
men  to  medicine.  He  and  his  step-brother, 
Thomas,  are  known  by  their  delightful  diaries, 
giving  a vivid  picture  of  student  life  at  Mont- 
pellier in  the  sixteenth  century.  Published 
“ De  corporis  humani  structura  et  usu,”  1583. 

1537-1619  — Hieronymus  Fabricius  Ab  Aquapendente. 

Physician  and  surgeon.  Said  to 
have  been  the  first  to  distinguish 
anatomically  between  goitre  and 
other  tumours  of  the  neck.  A 
pupil  of  Falloppius  ; William 
Harvey  was  his  pupil  at  Padua, 
where  he  was  professor  of  surgery 
for  thirty  years.  First  to  de- 
scribe the  valves  in  the  veins. 
Published  works  on  anatomy, 
embryology  and  surgery.  In- 
vented several  instruments  and 
orthopaedic  appliances. 

98 


The  Sixteenth  Century 

1538-1616- — Matthaeus  Lobelius  (L’Obel).  Born  at  Lille, 
studied  at  Louvain  and  Montpellier.  Physician 
to  William  of  Orange.  He  was  invited  to 
England  by  James  I (to  whom  he  became  phy- 
sician in  ordinary)  on  account  of  his  know- 
ledge of  botany.  The  plant  Lobelia  is  named 
after  him.  Author  of  “ Plantarum  seu  stirpium 
historia.”  Antwerp,  1576. 

1538-1616- — Mercurius,  or  Scipione  Mercurio.  Born  in 
Rome,  educated  at  Bologna  and  Padua,  and 
entered  the  Dominican  monastery  at  Milan. 
Leaving  the  monastery,  after  travelling,  he 
practised  with  success  in  Padua  and  Venice 
He  wrote  “ La  Commare  o raccoglitrice,”  in 
I595>  ^e  first  Italian  work  on  midwifery, 
pointed  out  the  value  of  operation  in  con- 
tracted pelvis,  illustrated  the  “ hanging  legs  ” 
position  for  delivery  in  cases  of  contracted 
pelvis,  and  showed  the  method  of  bimanual 
version. 

1540.  — Company  of  Barber  Surgeons  of  London 

founded  by  Act  of  Parliament. 

1542  1602. — Peter  Severin,  or  Peder  Soerensen  of  Ribe 
in  Jutland.  Physician  in  ordinary  to  King 
Friedrich  II.  Follower  of  Paracelsus  and 

his  doctrines.  His  work  “ Idea  medicinse 

philosophic®  ” was  highly  thought  of  by  Sir 
Frances  Bacon. 


99 


The  Sixteenth  Century 

1540  1603.  — William  Gilbert,  of  Colchester.  M.D. 

Cantab.  Physician  to  Queen 
Elizabeth  and  James  I.  “ The 
father  of  experimental  philo- 
sophy.” Discoverer  of  static  elec- 
tricity and  magnetism,  and  author 
of  “ De  Magnete,”  1600,  the 
perusal  of  which  led  Galileo  to 
study  magnetism.  He  was  Presi- 
dent of  the  College  of  Physicians 
of  London,  in  1600.  Drydenwrote 
of  him  “ Gilbert  shall  live  till 
loadstones  cease  to  draw.” 

1540  1600.— Salomon  Alberti.  Professor  of  physic  at 
Wittenberg.  Author  of  “ Historia  plerar- 
umque  partium  humani  corporis,”  1581,  which 
contains  many  interesting  observations. 

1542. — First  edition  of  the  “ Fabrica  ” by  Yesalius 

printed  at  Bale. 

1543-1575-— Constantine  Yarolio.  Professor  of  anatomy 
and  surgery  at  Bologna  and  Rome.  Physician 
to  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  Published  his  “ Ana- 
tomia,”  1573.  The  first  to  study  carefully  the 
base  of  the  brain,  the  origin  of  the  nerves 
and  to  describe  the  pores  of  the  skin.  Said  to 
have  discovered  the  valve  of  the  colon.  His 
name  is  preserved  in  the  Pons  Varolii. 

1543-1601. — Jan  van  Heurne,  of  Utrecht.  M.D. Padua. 

Physician  to  Count  Egmont,  and  professor  at 


100 


The  Sixteenth  Century 

Leyden,  where  he  introduced  the  clinical  teach- 
ing of  medicine.  He  prepared  an  excellent 
edition  of  the  works  of  Hippocrates. 

1556- 1599-— Casper  Tagliacozzi,  of  Bologna.  Became 

famous  for  his  work  on  the  restoration  of  the 
nose  and  rhinoplastic  operations,  which  were 
so  condemned  by  the  Church  that  his  body  was 
exhumed  and  buried  in  unconsecrated  ground. 
Pioneer  in  rhinoplasty  and  author  of  “ De  Chi- 
rurgia  curtorum  per  insitionem,”  Venice,  1597. 

1557-  — St.  Mary  of  Bethlehem  Hospital  for  the  insane 

founded  in  London,  though  Bedlem  had  been 
used  as  an  asylum  since  1377. 

1556-1609- — Quercetanus,  or  Joseph  du  Chesne.  Born 
in  Gascony.  Physician  in  ordinary  to  Henry 
IV.  The  first  physician  in  France  to  recom- 
mend the  antimonial  remedies  described  by 
Paracelsus.  Practised  in  Bale  and  Geneva. 
Studied  the  action  of  air  on  wounds. 

1550- 1613- — - Jacques  Guillemeau.  Succeeded  Pare  as 
physician  to  Charles  IX  of  France.  Enriched 
both  surgery  and  obstetrics  and  wrote  a book 
on  the  diseases  of  the  eye.  His  collected 
surgical  works  were  translated  into  English 
and  into  Dutch. 

1550-1616—  Timothy  Bright.  M.D.,  Cantab.  Physician 
to  St.  Bartholomew’s  Hospital  and  afterwards 
Rector  ofMethley,  near  Wakefield  in  Yorkshire. 
Author  of  “ A treatise  on  melancholy,”  and  an 
epitome  of  “ Foxe’s  Book  of  Martyrs.”  By  his 


101 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

book  “ Caracterie : an  arte  of  shorte,  swifte, 
and  secrete  writing,  by  character,”  1588,  he 
became  the  father  of  modern  shorthand.  The 
book  was  reprinted  in  1888. 

1550-1610-—  Peter  Lowe  of  Glasgow.  Surgeon  ; studied 
in  Paris  and  travelled  much  abroad.  Author 
of  “ The  whole  course  of  chirurgerie,”  1596,  and 
other  works.  Founded  the  Faculty  of  Phy- 
sicians and  Surgeons  in  Glasgow  in  1599. 

1553- 1617- — Prosper  Alpino.  Natural  Historian  and 
Botanist.  He  travelled  through 
Egypt,  Crete  and  Greece  from 
1580101583.  He  wrote  on  plants 
and  became  professor  of  botany  at 
Padua.  He  wrote  “ De  plantis 
ASgypti  liber,”  1592,  “ Historia 
SEgypti  naturalis,”  and  “ De  me- 
dicina  SEgyptorum,”  1591.  He 
was  the  last  of  the  “ Methodists” 
and  was  for  some  time  associated 
with  Andrea  Dorea  for  whom  he 
went  to  Geneva. 

1554- 1636- — Giovanni  Baptista  Cortesi.  Professor  of 

anatomy  and  surgery  in  Bologna  and  Messina. 
He  practised  rhinoplastic  surgery. 

ca.  1593.— Etienne  Gourmelen.  Professor  of  surgery  at 
Paris  and  opponent  of  Ambroise  Pare,  who 
wrote  a stinging  reply  to  him  in  1580  in  which 
he  calls  him  derisively  “ mon  petit  maitre.” 


102 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

d.  1600- — Thomas  Muffett.  Physician  and  entomologist : 
practised  in  London  and  Ipswich.  He  wrote 
on  dietetics  and  a work  entitled  “ Nosoman- 
tica  Hippocratica,  seu  Hippocratis  prognostica 
cuncta,”  Frankfort,  1588.  “Health’s  improve- 
ment, or  rules  comprising  and  discovering  the 
nature,  method,  and  manner  of  preparing  all 
sorts  of  food  used  in  this  nation,’’  London  : 1655. 

ca.  1596- — Albertino  Bottoni.  One  of  the  first  to  give  actual 
clinical  instruction  in  Padua.  He  was  a keen 
observer  and  wrote  a treatise  on  gynaecology. 

1556-  (?)  1643- — John  Woodall.  English  surgeon.  Prac- 
tised in  Poland,  returned  to  England  in  1599. 
Surgeon-General  of  the  East  India  Company  in 
1613.  Surgeon  to  St.  Bartholomew’s  Hospital, 
1615.  Author  of  “The  Surgeon’s  mate,”  1617, 
“The  Viaticum,”  1628,  and  other  treatises  on 
surgery.  He  drew  attention  to  the  value  of 
lime  juice  for  sailors  on  long  voyages. 

1558-1609- — Andreas  du  Laurens  of  Arles.  Chancellor 
of  Montpellier  and  afterwards  physician  in 
ordinary  to  Henry  IV  of  France.  Author  of 
“ Historia  anatomica  humani  corporis,”  Paris, 
1589.  It  went  through  several  editions.  Recalls 
that  the  King  had  cured  1,500  persons  suffering 
from  the  King’s  Evil  or  scrofula  by  touching 
them. 

ca.  1602- — Florian  Matthis.  Performed  the  first  gas- 
trotomy  in  1692  to  remove  a knife  which  had 
been  swallowed. 


The  Seventeenth  Century 


1560- 162$. — Fabricus  Hildanus,  or  Wilhelm  Fabriz,  or 
Fabry,  of  Hilden,  near  Dussel- 
dorf.  Surgeon.  Educated  at 
Cologne.  Practised  in  Switzer- 
land, settling  eventually  in  Berne. 
Invented  many  instruments,  and 
specially  studied  the  eye  and  the 
ear.  Is  regarded  as  the  father 
of  German  surgery,  and  wrote 
“ Observationum  et  curationum 
chirurgicarum  centuria,”  first 
published  at  Bale  in  1606  and 
frequently  reprinted.  He  laid 
great  stress  on  anatomy.  By 

his  social  and  professional  attainments  he  did 
much  to  raise  surgery  amongst  the  German- 
speaking races  to  a higher  position  than  it  had 
ever  held.  His  wife,  Maria  Coilinet,  was  also  a 
surgeon  and  had  charge  of  his  practice  during, 
his  absences.  She  was  the  first  to  conceive 
the  idea  of  removing  metallic  particles  from 
the  eye  by  means  of  a magnet. 

1560  162$.— Gaspar  Bauhine.  M.D.,  Bale.  Botanist  and 
chief  physician  to  the  city  of  Bale  and  to  the 
Duke  of  Wurtemberg.  Became  director  of  the 
University,  professor  of  Greek,  botany,  anatomy 
and  medicine  successively.  Published  ana- 
tomical and  botanical  works. 

1561- 1616. — Julius,  or  Placenterius  Casserius.  Pupil, 

assistant  and  successor  of  Fabricius  at  Padua. 


104 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

Published  “Tabulae,”  1627,  in  which  the  coraco- 
brachialis  is  described  as  a separate  muscle. 
He  paid  special  attention  to  the  anatomy  of  the 
organs  of  voice  and  hearing.  His  “ De  vocis 
auditusque  organis  ” was  published  in  1601. 

1561-1636. — Sanctorius,  Santorio.  Physician  and  pro- 
fessor at  Padua.  Devised  an  instrument 
for  investigating  the  pulse,  and  a kind  of 
thermometer  for  taking  the  temperature  of 
the  healthy  and  sick,  as  well  as  a machine  for 
weighing  himself  before,  during  and  after  a 
meal.  He  was  thus  the  founder  of  the  physio- 
logy of  metabolism.  His  book,  “ De  medicina 
statica  aphorisma  ” passed  through  twenty 
editions  between  1614  and  1736. 

ca.  1562. — Louise  Oliva  Sabuco.  Born  at  Alcarez,  la 
Manche,  Toledo,  eminent  Spanish  philosopher  ; 
she  endeavoured  to  dethrone  Galen  and  the 
Arabs  from  the  exalted  position  which  they 
held  in  contemporary  philosophy  and  medicine. 
She  was  not  a medical  woman,  but  displayed 
profound  knowledge  of  the  classical  medical 
writers  and  of  contemporary  anatomy  and 
physiology.  Some  of  her  ideas  on  pathology 
and  epidemiology  were  far  in  advance  of  her 
time 

1563-1636. — Louise  Bourgeoise,  or  Boussier.  Accou- 
cheuse to  the  French  Court.  One  of  the 
pioneers  of  scientific  midwifery.  Published 
“ Observations  divers  sur  la  sterilite,”  1609, 


!°5 


The  Seventeenth  Century 


which  was  the  vade  mecum  of  midwives  of 
the  time,  also  “ Recit  veritable  de  la  naissance 
de  messeigneurs  et  dames  les  enfants  de 
France,”  which  had  a great  reputation. 

1568- 1640- — Baldwin  Hamey.  Born  at  Bruges,  studied 

at  Leyden.  Physician  to  the  Czar  Theodore 
Ivenowitz.  Returned  to  Holland  1598,  and 
afterwards  settled  in  London. 

1569- 1728- — The  Chamberlens.  A family  of  Huguenot 
refugees  practising  surgery  and 
midwifery  in  England  from  1569- 
1728.  The  father,  William,  was 
followed  by  two  sons  both  called 
Peter,  one  son  James  and  one 
Simon.  The  two  Peters  were 
members  of  the  Barber  Surgeons’ 
Company  in  London  and  the 
younger  was  licensed  to  practise 
midwifery  by  the  Bishop  of 
London  in  1600.  He  died  in 
1626.  Peter  the  elder  was  re- 
peatedly arraigned  by  the  College 

Piter  Chamberlen,  1658.  of  Physicians  for  practising 
physic  instead  of  confining  himself  to  surgery. 
Peter  the  grandson,  son  of  Peter  the  younger, 
was  born  in  1601,  and  graduated  M.D.,  Padua, 
in  1619;  he  died  in  1683.  Hugh,  the  elder 
son  of  Peter  the  grandson,  was  born  in  1630. 
Paul,  his  brother  was  born  1635  and  died 
1717.  John,  another  brother,  died  about,  1700. 

106 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

Hugh  the  younger,  son  of  Hugh  the  elder, 
was  born  in  1664  an(3  took  the  M.D. Cantab,  in 
1689  and  died  in  1728.  All  these  Chamberlens 
practised  midwifery  with  great  success  and 
most  of  them  attended  the  Queens  of  the  time. 
It  is  uncertain  when  exactly  the  obstetrical 
forceps  associated  with  their  name  were  in- 
vented, but  there  is  proof  that  the  profession 
was  well  aware  in  1634  that  t^'e  family  used 
special  “instruments  of  iron.”  The  Chamber- 
lens  endeavoured  to  sell  the  secret  of  their 
forceps  to  Mauriceau  and  to  the  British  and 
French  Governments,  but  eventually  disposed 
of  it  to  Roon  Ruysen  in  Holland.  It  was 
soon  after  acquired  by  the  Medico-Phar- 
maceutical College  of  Amsterdam,  which 
imparted  the  secret  to  their  licensees  for  a large 
sum. 

1572-1632. — Theodore  Goulston.  M.D.,  1610.  Fellow 
of  Merton  College,  Oxford.  Practised  at 
Wymondham  and  in  London  and  wrote  works 
on  Aristotle  and  Galen.  Endowed  a lecture- 
ship at  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians,  “ to 
be  read  by  one  of  the  four  youngest  doctors  of 
the  College.’’  “ He  was  an  excellent  Latinist 
and  a noted  Grecian,  but  better  for  theology.” 

1572-16^0.— Edmund  Deane.  Educated  at  Merton  Col- 
lege, Oxford,  practised  at  York.  Published 
in  1626  “ Spadacrene  Anglica,”  which  first 
called  attention  to  the  value  of  the  Harrogate 


107 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

medicinal  waters.  The  book  passed  through 
several  editions  and  was  reprinted  in  1921. 

1574- 1637-  Robertus  de  Fluctibus.  Robert  Fludd, 

M.D.Oxon.  Physician,  alchemist,  mystic  and 
philosopher.  Was  interdicted  from  practice 
by  the  College  of  Physicians,  of  which  he  was 
a member. 

1575- 1635- — John  Hall.  Married  at  Stratford-on-Avon, 

in  1607,  Susannah,  the  elder  daughter  of 
Shakespeare,  and  through  her  inherited  New 
Place.  He  practised  medicine  but  does  not 
appear  to  have  received  any  licence  or  uni- 
versity degree  though  the  register  of  his  burial 
describes  him  as  “ medicus  peritissimus.” 
Some  notes  of  his  cases  were  published  by 
James  Cooke  in  1657. 

1575-1655. — Thomas  Winston.  M.D. Padua  and  Cam- 
bridge. Professor  of  Physics  at  Gresham 
College,  1615-1642.  His  anatomy  lectures 
were  published  posthumously  in  1659.  They 
recognized  Harvey’s  work  and  were  con- 
sidered the  most  accurate  and  complete  of 
their  time. 

1577-1644- — Jean  Baptiste  van  Helmont.  Capuchin 
Friar.  Physician  and  chemist,  Born  in 
Brussels,  travelled  through  Europe,  died  at 
Vilvorde,  near  Brussels.  Revived  the  doctrine 
of  Paracelsus  and  founded  a system  of  mys- 
ticism. “‘The  Faust’  of  the  17th  century,” 

108 


The  Seventeenth  Century 
and  founder  of  the  iatro-chemical  school.  He 
described  gas  sylvestre  or  carbon-dioxide  and 
made  some  advance  in  the  analysis  of  urine. 

1577- 1657-  Johann  Riolan  the  Younger.  Surgeon  and 

anatomist  of  Paris.  Author  of  works  on 
anatomy  and  surgery,  now  best  remembered 
as  the  opponent  of  Harvey’s  teaching  on  the 
circulation  of  the  blood.  Harvey  spoke  of  him 
as  “The  prince  and  leader  of  all  the  anato- 
mists of  the  present  age,”  but  Huxley  wrote 
of  him  as  “a  tympanitic  Philistine  who  would 
have  been  none  the  worse  for  a few  sharp 
incisions.”  Wrote  “Ars  bene  Medendi,”  Paris, 
1601,  and  “Opera  cum  physica  turn  medica,” 
Frankfort,  1611. 

1578- 1657- — William  Harvey,  of  Folkestone.  Discoverer 
of  the  circulation  of  the  blood. 
Lumleian  lecturer  on  anatomy  and 
surgery  at  the  College  of  Physi- 
cians in  London,  and  physician 
to  St.  Bartholomew’s  Hospital. 
Physician  to  James  I and  Charles 
I.  After  researches  extending 
over  twenty-six  years,  he  pub- 
lished his  immortal  work,  “ Ex- 
ercitatio  anatomica  de  motu  cordis 
et  sanguinis,”  at  Frankfort-am- 
Main  in  1628,  in  which  he  de- 
scribed his  famous  discovery 

which  revolutionized  all  the  theories  and 


iog 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

systems  prior  to  his  time  and  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  modern  physiology. 

1578- 1625- — Adrian  Spigelius,  or  van  den  Spieghel. 

Flemish  anatomist  and  physician.  Professor 
of  surgery  and  anatomy  at  Padua.  Published 
“ De  corporis  humani  fabrica,”  Lib.  io,  1627. 

1579- 1647.— Cesare  Magati  of  Scandiano.  Operating 

surgeon  and  professor  at  Ferrara.  Simplified 
the  treatment  of  wounds.  Author  of  “ De 
rara  medicatione  vulnerum,”  printed  in  1616. 
He  believed  that  gunshot  wounds  were  not 
poisoned. 

1580- 1609 —Oswald  Croll.  Physician  to  Prince  Christian 

of  Anhalt-Bernburg.  A follower  of  Paracelsus 
and  member  of  the  Rudolphine  Academy  of 
Medicine  at  Prague.  Author  of  “ Basilia 
Chymica,”  which  was  repeatedly  reprinted. 
He  published  a formula  for  the  preparation  of 
calomel. 

1580-1656- — Marco  Aurelio  Seyerino,  of  Tarsia,  Cala- 
bria. Surgeon  and  professor  at  Naples.  A 
skilful  operator  and  forerunner  of  modern 
comparative  anatomists.  He  wrote  “Zootomia 
Democritea”  in  1645. 

1581  (?)  -1626- — Gasparo  Aselli,  of  Cremona.  Professor 
of  anatomy  at  Padua.  Discovered  the  lacteals 
in  1622,  which  had,  however,  been  observed 
by  Erasistratus.  His  discovery  was  not  pub- 
lished till  after  his  death  in  his  “ De  lactibus,” 
1627.  It  contains  the  earliest  anatomical 


no 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

illustrations  printed  in  colour.  His  name 
remains  in  the  “ pancreas  of  Aselli.” 

1586-1641. — Alexander  Reid,  Rhead,  Read.  Surgeon. 

Lecturer  on  anatomy  at  the  Barber  Surgeons’ 
Hall,  1632-1634.  Published  “ A description  of 
the  body  of  man,”  “The  manuall  of  anatomy,” 
1634  ; “ Treatise  of  the  muscles  of  the  body  of 
man,”  1659  ; and  “ Treatise  of  the  first  part  of 
chirurgerie,”  1638  ; &c.  His  works  had  a great 
reputation,  but  they  are  dull  reading. 

d.  1589- — Melchior  Wieland.  Professor  of  medicine  and 
botany  at  Padua  and  superintendent  of  the 
botanical  gardens  of  that  city. 

d.  1643- — Johann  Georg  Wirsung.  Professor  of 
anatomy  at  Padua.  He  described  the  pan- 
creatic duct  which  bears  his  name  in  a 
letter  to  Riolan  in  1642.  Copper  prints  of 
the  original  dissection  still  exist.  He  was 
assassinated  when  entering  his  house  at  night; 
it  is  said  this  was  due  to  a quarrel  between 
his  pupil  Hoffmann  and  himself  as  to  the 
discovery  of  the  duct. 

1588-1654. — Olaus  Worm.  Professor  of  humanities  at 

Copenhagen,  and  Rector  of  the  University. 
Afterwards  professor  of  physic  and  medicine. 
Published  works  on  ancient  literature  and 
medicine.  The  “ Wormian  bones  ” which  he 
described  had  already  been  noted  by  the 
ancients. 


1 1 1 


The  Seventeenth  Century 


1590- — First  compound  microscope  made  by  Hans  and 
Zacharias  Janssen. 

1592- 1631. — Jacobus  Bontius.  Came  of  a distinguished 

medical  family  in  Holland.  Was  born  at  Ley- 
den and  became  inspector  of  surgeons  and 
afterwards  Advocat-fiscal  in  the  Indies.  His 
works  on  tropical  medicine  were  published 
posthumously  in  1646  and  were  translated  into 
English.  Described  beri-beri. 

1593- 1672. — Nicholas  Tulpius.  Dutch  anatomist.  The 
central  figure  in  Rembrandt’s 
“ The  lesson  on  anatomy.” 
Known  to  history  as  the  aged 
burgomaster  whose  intrepid  patri- 
otism prevented  the  surrender  of 
Amsterdam  to  the  French,  1672. 
First  to  describe  “ A man-like 
ape”  (a  young  chimpanzee?).  Pub- 
lished “ Observationes  medicae,” 
1641.  called  by  Haller  “ a golden 
work.”  He  strongly  disapproved 
of  the  practice  of  publishing 
medical  works  in  the  vulgar 

tongue,  believing  that  it  would  lead  to  a great 
increase  in  disease. 

1595-1645. — Johann  Scultetus,  of  Ulm.  Surgeon.  He 
describes  a variety  of  methods  of  bandaging 
and  the  many-tailed  bandage  still  in  use 
is  often  called  “ Scultetus’  bandage.”  Author 
of  “ Armamentarium  chirurgicum,”  which 


1 1 2 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

appeared  posthumously  in  1653,  and  ran 
through  several  editions,  and  of  “ Chyrur- 
geon’s  Storehouse,”  Englished  by 
London,  1674. 

1597-1677- — Francis  Glisson.  Regius  Professor  of  Physic 
at  Cambridge.  One  of  the 
Founders  of  the  Royal  Society 
and  President  of  the  Royal  Col- 
lege of  Physicians  of  London.  Dis- 
covered the  cystic  duct.  Author 
of  a work  on  the  anatomy  of  the 
liver,  “ Anatomia  hepatis,”  1654, 
in  which  he  described  that 
investing  sheath  which  is  still 
known  as  “ Glisson’s  capsule.” 
Described  “ Rickets  ” in  1650, 
and  published  a work  on  the 
intestines,  in  1676.  One  of  the  few  physicians 
who  remained  in  London  throughout  the 
plague. 

1599  —Royal  Faculty  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons  of 

Glasgow  established  at  the  instigation  of 
Master  Peter  Lowe. 

1600  (?)-16M— ' Thomas  Johnson.  Apothecary,  botanist, 

Royalist  colonel.  Created  M.D.  at  Oxford 
1643.  Died  of  wounds  received  in  defend- 
ing Basing  House.  Published  in  1636  an  en- 
larged and  amended  edition  of  Gerarde’s 
Herbal. 

h 113 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

1600-1676. — Baldwin  Hamey.  Son  of  Dr.  Baldwin 
Hamey.  Born  in  London,  educated  at  Leyden 
and  Oxford.  Lectured  on  anatomy  at  the 
College  of  Physicians  of  London,  to  which  he 
was  a liberal  benefactor.  A series  of  MSS. 
remain  unprinted  at  the  College  entitled 
“ Bustorum  aliquot  Reliquia.”  They  are  a 
series  of  sketches  of  his  contemporaries. 

1602-1680.— Athanasius  Kircher,  of  Fulda.  Physicist 
and  writer  on  astronomy  and  chemistry.  Born 
in  Geysa,  entered  the  Jesuit  order.  Professor 
of  mathematics  and  Hebrew  in  the  Roman 
College  at  Rome.  An  Egyptologist.  Sought 
the  cause  of  infectious  diseases,  especially 
plague  and  anthrax  ; probably  the  first  to 
employ  the  microscope  in  the  investigation  of 
these  diseases.  He  wrote  on  magnetism  and 
described  hypnotism  in  certain  animals,  and 
wrote  “ Physiologia  Kircheriana,”  “ Ars 
Magnesia,”  1631  ; “ Scrutinium  pestis,”  1658. 

1604-1689.— Sir  George  Ent.  M.D. Padua.  President 
of  the  College  of  Physicians,  1670  to  1675. 
Champion  of  Harvey;  was  largely  responsible 
for  the  printing  of  Harvey’s  “ De  generatione.” 
Charles  II  attended'one  of  his  anatomy  lectures 
and  knighted  him  in  the  Harveian  Museum  on 
the  spot.  Published  an  “ Apology  for  the  cir- 
culation of  the  blood  ” in  1641. 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

1605-1682. — Sir  Thomas  Browne,  of  Norwich.  M.D. 

Cantab.  Physician  and  author 
of  “Religio  Medici,”  1642, 
“ Pseudodoxia  Epidemica,”  1646, 
and  “ Hydriotaphia  ; or  a dis- 
course ot  Sepulchral  Urns  lately 
found  in  Norfolk,”  1658.  A 
master  of  the  English  tongue 
“ pure  and  undefiled.”  His  eldest 
son  Edward  Browne  [1664-1708] 
was  physician  to  St.  Bartholo- 
mew’s Hospital.  He  travelled 
much  and  wrote  accounts  of  his 
journeys  in  1673,  J^77  and  1685. 

1608- 1679.  — Giovanni  Alfonso  Borelli,  of  Naples. 

Physiologist  and  mathematician.  Founder  of 
the  Iatromathematical  School.  Advanced  the 
knowledge  of  physiology  on  mathematical  lines. 
He  endeavoured  to  explain  the  action  of  the 
muscles  by  the  laws  of  tlfe  lever,  and  believed 
that  digestion  was  a mechanical  process.  His 
book  “ De  Motu  animalium  ” was  published 
posthumously  at  Rome  in  1680  and  1681. 

1609- 1684. — Charles  Spon.  Graduated  at  Montpellier. 

Practised  in  Lyons.  Physician  to  Louis  XIV. 
Rendered  great  service  by  publication  of  toreign 
works  in  French,  translated  the  Prognostics 
and  Aphorisms  of  Hippocrates  into  Latin  verse 
and  also  wrote  a complete  myology  in  rhyme. 
1613-1685  — Nathaniel  Highmore,  of  Sherborne  in 
Dorsetshire.  M.D.,  Oxon.  Physician  and  ana- 
H5 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

tomist.  A friend  of  Dr.  William  Harvey. 
Described  the  “ Antrum  of  Highmore  ” in  the 
superior  maxillary  bone— which  had  been  noted 
by  Casserius — the  seminal  ducts  and  the  epi- 
didymis. He  had  a large  practice  and  was  a 
magistrate  for  Dorset.  Published  the  “ Cor- 
poris humani  Disquisitio  Anatomica  ” in  1651. 

1614-1656- — Thomas  Wharton.  M.D.,  Oxon.  Physician 
and  anatomist.  Physician  to  St.  Thomas’s 
Hospital.  Investigated  the  pancreas  and  dis- 
covered the  duct  of  the  submaxillary  salivary 
gland,  which  is  called  after  him  “ Wharton’s 
duct.”  Professor  at  Gresham  College  and  lived 
in  London  throughout  the  plague.  He  was 
a friend  of  Isaac  Walton. 

1614-1672. — Francois  de  la  Boe  (Sylvius).  Professor  of 

medicine  at  Leyden.  Follower 
of  the  Iatrochemical  school,  a fan- 
tastic system  based  on  the  ele- 
ments of  chemistry.  He  gave  his 
name  to  the  fissure  of  Sylvius  in 
the  cerebrum.  One  of  the  earliest 
advocates  of  Harvey’s  theory. 
Strove  to  re-establish  the  humoral 
pathology  on  a firm  basis  of  chemi- 
cal facts.  A pioneer  of  bedside 
teaching.  The  first  representa- 
tion of  his  fissure  appears  in  his 
contribution  to  the  1641  edition  of  the  “ Insti- 
tutiones  anatomicae  ” of  Bartholinus. 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

1614-1680. — Conrad  Victor  Schneider.  Professor  of 
philosophy  and  medicine  at  Wittemberg. 
Physician  to  the  Elector  of  Saxony.  Author 
of  “ De  Catarrhis”  in  which  lie  put  an  end  to 
the  idea  that  nasal  mucus  comes  from  the  brain. 

1616-1654.  — Nicholas  Culpeper.  English  pseudo- 
physician and  astrologer.  Came  into  disrepute 
through  translating  the  London  Pharmacopoeia 
into  English.  Published  among  other  works 
“The  English  physician,”  1653,  and  “ An  astro- 
logical materia  medica,”  which  had  an  enor- 
mous vogue.  He  knew  his  herbs  well  and  his 
general  advice  was  sound.  He  practised  in 
Spitalfields  and  was  wounded  in  the  Civil  War. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  he  ever  graduated. 

1616- 1680. — Thomas  Bartholinus.  Anatomist,  physician, 

archaeologist  and  Judge  of  the  Supreme  Court. 
Son  of  Caspar  Bartholinus  [1585-1629]  of 
Copenhagen.  Wrote  on  the  Unicom  and  on 
Monsters.  Professor  ot  mathematics  at  Copen- 
hagen, 1647,  and  of  anatomy,  1648.  Physi- 
cian to  the  King  of  Denmark  and  Librarian 
to  the  University.  He  demonstrated  the  exis- 
tence of  the  thoracic  duct  in  1652.  His  son, 
Caspar  [b.  1654],  a^so  an  anatomist,  is  remem- 
bered by  “ Bartholin’s  Glands  ” and  “ Bar- 
tholin’s Duct,”  the  duct  of  the  sublingual  gland. 

1617-  — Society  of  Apothecaries  of  London  founded. 

1618. — London  Pharmacopoeia  first  issued  by  the  Royal 

College  of  Physicians.  There  were  two  editions 


117 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

published  in  this  year,  the  second  being  en- 
larged. 

1618-1710. — Samuel  Collins.  M.D. Padua.  President 

of  the  College  of  Physicians, 

1695.  Physician  in  Ordinary 

to  Charles  II.  Anatomy  reader 
to  the  College  of  Physicians. 

Author  of  “ A System  of  Ana- 
tomy, treating  of  the  Body  of 
Man,  Beasts,  Birds,  Fish,  Insects 
and  Plants,”  1685,  beautifully 
illustrated,  but  verbose.  Goul- 
stonian  and  Lumleian  lecturer. 


1620-1683  — Robert  Morrison,  or  Modesy.  M.D.  Paris  and 
Oxford.  Botanist  and  physician  to  the  Duke 
of  Orleans,  and  botanist  to  the  Royal  Gardens 
in  England.  Sherardian  professor  of  botany 
at  Oxford.  He  was  one  of  the  first  to  make 
use  of  dichotomous  keys  to  specific  characters. 

1620  (?) -1704. — Jean  Baptiste  Denis.  Professor  of  philo- 
sophy and  mathematics  at  Paris.  Physician  to 
Louis  XIV  ; performed  the  first  transfusion  in 
man  on  June  15,  1667. 

1620-1689- — Theophilus  Bonetus.  Swiss  physician  and 
a precursor  of  Morgagni  in  morbid  anatomy. 
His  principal  works  are  entitled  “ Sepulchretum 
seu  Anatomia  Practica  ” and  “ Pharus  Medi- 
corum,”  published  in  1668. 


118 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

1621. — First  Botanical  Gardens  established  in  Oxford, 
by  Henry  Danvers,  Earl  of  Danby,  to  which 
Jacob  Bobart  the  elder,  1596(7)  -1680,  a native 
of  Brunswick,  was  appointed  hortus  prefectus. 

1621-1675. — Thomas  Willis,  of  Oxford.  Physician  to 

Charles  II.  Ascribed  diseases, 
especially  those  of  the  blood,  to 
“fermentation”  and  “efferves- 
cence.” Advanced  the  know- 
ledge of  the  anatomy  of  the 
nervous  system  and  was  the 
author  of  many  works.  His  name 
is  preserved  in  “ The  Circle  of 
Willis,”  the  original  drawings 
of  which  were  made  by  Sir 
Christopher  Wren,  and  were 
published  in  1664  in  “ Cerebri 
Anatome.”  He  was  also  a good 
clinical  physician  and  drew  attention  to  the 
difference  in  sweetness  of  the  urine  in  diabetes 
mellitus  and  insipidus. 

1638- — Countess  of  Chinchon  cured  of  malarial  fever  by 
Peruvian  bark  afterwards  called  cinchona. 

fl.  1670-  John  Greenfield,  Jan  Groeneveldt,  of  Deventer 
in  Holland.  Lithotomist,  who  settled  in  London 
and  wrote  a treatise  on  the  stone  and  gravel 
(London,  1677)  and  other  works  on  lithotomy. 

d.  1696-  William  Cockburn.  Author  of  a work  on 
gonorrhoea,  in  which  he  located  the  seat  of  the 
disease  in  the  mucous  glands  of  the  urethra. 


119 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

1623- 1687- — Sir  William  Petty.  Physician  and  political 

economist.  Fellow  of  Brasenose  College, 
Oxford;  M.D.,  1649.  Professor  of  anatomy. 
Physician  to  the  Army  in  Ireland  and  to  the 
Viceroy.  One  of  the  Founders  of  the  Royal 
Society.  Invented  an  instrument  for  double 
writing  and  a ship  to  sail  against  wind  and  tide. 
Fie  surveyed  and  afterwards  mapped  Ireland 
under  the  English  Commonwealth  Government. 

1624- 1677- — Georg  Hieronymus  Welsch.  Physician  of 

Augsburg,  who  re-discovered  the  guinea-worm. 
It  was  well  known  to  the  classical  writers  on 
medicine. 

1624-1689- — Thomas  Sydenham.  Physician  and  epide- 
miologist. Studied  at  Oxford  ; 
took  his  M.D.  degree  at  Cam- 
bridge 1676.  Advocated  Hippo- 
cratic doctrines  and  held  that 
observations  and  experience  were 
the  standards  for  the  physician. 
He  recognized  the  healing  power 
of  Nature  and  recommended 
simplicity  in  treatment  and  thus 
became  the  great  reformer  of 
practical  medicine  in  England 
and  the  founder  of  modern  epi- 
demiology. He  wrote  on  epidemic 
constitutions  and  was  the  author  of  many 
works,  the  chief  being  “ Observationes 
medicae,”  1675,  also  treatises  on  gout,  fevers 
and  malaria. 


120 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

1624-1674- — Jean  Pecquet.  French  anatomist.  Described 
the  receptaculum  chyli  and  thoracic  duct  and 
showed  conclusively  that  the  chyle  does  not  go 
to  the  liver  but  by  the  lacteals  to  the  recep- 
taculum and  thence  to  the  subclavian  vein. 

1624- 1669.— John  Sterne,  or  Stearne.  M.D.,  Trinity 

College,  Dublin.  Founder  of  the  Irish  College 
of  Physicians. 

1625- 1680- — Richard  Wiseman.  Surgeon  to  the  Stuart 
Kings  from  Charles  I to  James  II. 
Skilful  operator  with  an  exten- 
sive military  experience.  Prac- 
tised flap  amputation.  Author  of 
“ Several  Surgical  Treatises,” 
1672,  and  was  the  first  English 
surgeon  to  draw  wide  generalisa- 
tions from  the  particular  cases 
which  had  come  under  his  ob- 
servation. He  was  the  first  to 
describe  tuberculosis  of  the  joints 
as  “ tumor  albus.” 

1625- 1695-— Giuseppe  Francisco  Borri,  of  Milan.  He 

practised  as  an  oculist  at  Milan,  and  was  a 
worker  in  alchemy.  Becoming  embroiled  in 
religious  controversies  he  was  eventually  con- 
fined in  the  Castle  of  St.  Angelo,  Rome,  where 
he  still  carried  on  his  work  and  ended  his  life 
after  an  imprisonment  of  twenty-five  years. 

1626- 1682- — Sir  John  Finch.  Son  of  Sir  Heneage  Finch, 

Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons,  and  brother 


121 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

of  the  first  Earl  of  Nottingham.  Educated  at 
Oxford  and  Cambridge.  M.D. Padua.  Pro- 

rector of  the  University  of  Padua.  Professor 
of  anatomy  at  Pisa.  Physician  to  Queen 
Catherine,  and  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal 
Society.  Ambassador  to  the  Ottoman  Court. 
Left  notes  dealing  with  many  scientific  matters, 
and  performed  experiments  on  the  digestion  of 
animals.  The  inseparable  friend  of  Sir  Thomas 
Baines. 

4626-1688. — Domenico  de  Merchettis.  Professor  of 
anatomy  at  Padua.  One  of  the  first  anatomists 
to  inject  the  vessels.  Proved  that  arteries  and 
veins  communicated  by  fine  ramifications. 
1627-1691. — Hon.  Robert  Boyle.  Son  of  the  first  Earl  of 
Cork  and  when  at  Oxford  took 
up  the  study  of  chemistry ; he 
fitted  up  a laboratory  at  Oxford, 
where  he  carried  on  his  researches. 
He  first  constructed  the  air-pump 
in  1660.  He  produced  methyl 
alcohol  from  the  products  of  the 
destructive  distillation  of  wood 
and  acetone  from  the  acetates  of 
lead  and  lime  heated  together. 
His  name  is  immortalized  by 
the  law  connecting  volume  and 
pressure  in  gases  known  as 
“ Boyle’s  Law  ” ; this  he  published  in  his 
work  entitled  “ Two  new  experiments  touching 


122 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

the  force  of  the  spring  of  air  compressed  and 
dilated,”  1662. 

1628-1694- — Marcello  Malpighi.  Anatomist  and  histolo- 
gist, Professor  of  Medicine  at 
Bologna.  Physician  to  Pope 
Innocent  XII.  Observed  the 
capillary  circulation  in  the  lung 
of  the  frog  in  1661.  His  name 
is  enshrined  in  the  “ Malpighian 
corpuscles  ” of  the  kidney  and 
the  “ Malpighian  bodies”  of  the 
spleen.  He  was  the  author  of 
several  works  on  anatomy  and 
pathology.  He  proved  that  the 
bile  is  secreted  by  the  liver  cells 
and  not  by  the  gall  bladder. 

1628- 1711-  — Nehemiah  Grew.  English  naturalist. 

F.R.S.  and  Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Physicians.  Author  of  “The  anatomy  of  vege- 
tables,” 1672,  and  “ Idea  of  a philosophical 
history  of  plants,”  1682. 

1628. — Harvey  published  his  work  entitled  “ De  Motu 
Cordis.” 

1629- 1688.— Nathaniel  Hodges.  M.D.Oxon.  Practised 

in  London  through  the  plague  of  1665,  of 
which  he  wrote  an  account  in  Latin  under  the 
title  “ Loimologia,”  which  was  translated  into 
English  by  John  Quincy.  He  died  in  a debtor’s 
prison. 


123 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

1629- 1675  — Jean  Henri  Glaser.  Professor  of  anatomy 

at  Bale.  He  published  a philosophical  treatise 
on  the  brain,  in  the  third  chapter  of  which  he 
describes  a “bitter  excrement”  that  is  formed 
in  the  cortex  of  the  brain  and  passes  to  the  ear 
by  the  auditory  nerve;  thence  it  goes  to  the 
parotid  by  the  fissure  which  bears  his  name : 
the  parotid,  after  imbibing  it,  spues  it  out  into 
the  meatus  as  ear  wax.  The  description  of  the 
fissure  is  vague  and  admittedly  based  on  the 
dissection  of  the  calf.  Barclay  in  1819  is  the 
first  to  call  it  by  Glaser’s  name.  The  treatise 
also  discusses  such  problems  as  why  man  is 
the  only  animal  that  laughs  and  whether  the 
bilious  dream  only  of  blood  and  red  things  in 
general. 

fl.  1630. — Thuillier  discovered  that  mal  ardent,  ignis  sacer, 
or  gangrenous  ergotism,  was  due  to  eating 
grain  contaminated  with  ergot. 

1630- 1702.  — Olof  Rudbeck.  Swedish  naturalist,  educated 

at  Upsala  and  Leyden.  Professor  of  medicine 
and  afterwards  Rector  of  the  University  at 
Upsala  in  1660  and  founder  of  the  first  botani- 
cal garden  there.  Shares  with  others  the 
discovery  of  the  thoracic  duct.  Author,  with 
his  son,  of  a great  work  on  botany,  “ Campi 
Elysii,”  1701-2. 

1631- 1685.— William  Boghurst.  Citizen  and  apothecary 

of  London.  He  wrote  “ Loimographia,”  the 


124 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

best  account  of  the  great  plague  of  London 
in  1665.  It  is  written  in  English  and  was 
published  by  the  Epidemiological  Society  in 
1894. 

1631-1717 — Pierre  Brisseau,  of  Tournay.  Professor  at 
Douay.  The  first  to  demonstrate  by  dissection 
the  clouded  lens  in  cataract  in  1705. 

1631-1658- — George  Joyliffe.  M.D. Cantab.  Practised  in 
London.  Shares  with  Pecquet  and  Rudbeck 
the  honour  of  the  first  description  of  the  lym- 
phatic system,  which  he  described  to  Glisson 
in  1652. 

1631- 1691- — Richard  Lower.  A Cornishman.  M.D.Oxon. 

Anatomist,  physician,  and  a Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society.  Practised  in  London  ; assisted 
Willis  as  his  prosector  in  Oxford.  Experi- 
mented in  physics  and  physiology,  making  funda- 
mental original  experiments.  First  to  perform 
direct  blood  transfusion  at  Oxford.  ELis  name 
is  commemorated  by  the  “tubercle  of  Lower” 
in  the  heart.  Author  of  “ Tractatus  de  corde,” 
1669,  and  “ Dissertatio  de  origine  catarrhi,” 
1672. 

1632- 1704- — John  Locke.  M.B.Oxon.  Better  known  as 

a philosopher  though  he  practised  for  some 
years  as  a physician.  He  was  a friend  of 
Sydenham  and  physician  to  Lord  Ashley,  the 
first  Earl  of  Shaftesbury.  His  “ Observationes 


I25 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

Medicae  ’ were  published  at  Amsterdam  in 
1C99. 

1632-1678. — Nicolaus  Holboken.  Obstetrician  and  pro- 
fessor in  Utrecht  and  Harderwyk.  Delineated 
and  described  with  accuracy  the  placenta  and 
envelopes  of  the  ovum. 

1632-1723. — Anton  van  Leeuwenhoeck.  Naturalist  and 

microscopist.  Janitor  of  the  Al- 
dermen at  Delft.  The  first  to 
describe  the  blood  corpuscles  and 
to  publish  an  account  of  the 
capillary  circulation  and  so  com- 
plete Harvey’s  theory  of  the  cir- 
culation. He  also  described  the 
spermatozoa  and  discovered  the 
striped  character  of  voluntary 
muscle  and  the  structure  of  the 
crystalline  lens.  He  was  the  first 
to  see  protozoa  under  the  micro- 
scope (1675),  and  to  find  micro-organisms  in 
the  teeth. 

1632- 1723. — Sir  Christopher  Wren.  Architect  and  anato- 

mist. Studied  medicine  at  Oxford  and  was  the 
first  to  demonstrate  the  injection  of  blood  and 
drugs  into  the  veins.  He  acted  as  prosector 
to  Thomas  Willis,  and  designed  the  present 
Sc.  Paul’s  Cathedral.  President  of  the  Royal 
Society  in  1680. 

1633- 1714.— Bernardino  Ramazzini.  Professor  at  Padua 

University  and  author  of  “ De  Morbis  Artificum 


126 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

Diatriba,”  1701,  in  which  he  describes  the  so- 
called  “trade-diseases.” 

1633- 1684. — William  Croone.  Physician  and  founder  of 

the  Croonian  lectures.  One  upon  “ the  nature 
and  laws  of  muscular  motion,”  to  be  read 
annually  before  the  College  of  Physicians  with 
a sermon  at  St.  Mary-le-bow  ; the  other  to  be 
delivered  yearly  before  the  Royal  Society,  of 
which  he  had  been  secretary.  He  made  some 
original  observations  in  his  “ De  ovo  ” antici- 
pating Malpighi’s  work  on  the  same  subject. 
Professor  ol  Rhetoric  at  Gresham  College  and 
an  early  promoter  of  the  Royal  Society. 

1634- 1707. — Denis  Dodart,  of  Paris.  Lawyer,  botanist 

and  consulting  physician  to  Louis  XIV.  Author 
of  “ Questio  medica,”  1682,  and  “ Enquiries 
into  the  cause  of  the  human  voice  and  its  dif- 
ferent tones.” 

1635- 1716. — William  Cole.  M.D.  of  Oxford.  Practised 

at  Worcester  : a friend  of  Sydenham  and  a 
leader  of  the  iatro-chemical  school.  Wrote 
“ Novae  hypotheseos  ad  explicanda  febrium 
intermittentium,”  London,  1694. 

1637-1686- — Jan  Swammerdam,  of  Amsterdam  and 
Hamburg.  Discovered  the  valves  in  the  lym- 
phatic vessels  and  proved  their  true  nature. 
He  was  best  known  for  his  discoveries  in 
connection  with  insects.  He  observed  the 
red  corpuscles  of  the  frog’s  blood  in  1658  and 
saw  the  circulation  in  the  capillaries  though  he 


127 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

does  not  appear  to  have  recognized  its  signi- 
ficance. 

1637-1698.— Richard  Morton.  M.D. Oxford.  Physician, 
epidemiologist  and  chaplain  at  New  College, 
Oxford.  He  afterwards  practised  in  London. 
He  attributed  all  diseases  to  poisoning  of  the 
“ vital  spirits  ” and  was  a firm  believer  in 
drugs.  Gave  a clear  description  of  scarlet 
fever.  His  works  “ Pyretologia,”  1692,  and 
“ Phthisiologia,”  1689,  passed  through  several 
editions. 

1637- 1709.  — Francois  Mauriceau.  Obstetrician  and 

President  of  the  College  of  St.  Come.  He 
introduced  version  and  much  practical  know- 
ledge into  his  teaching  of  obstetrics.  Author 
of  “ Traite  des  maladies  des  femmes  grosses/’ 
Paris,  1668,  which  ran  through  many  editions 
and  was  often  translated. 

1638- 1686- — Nicolaus  Steno,  or  Niels  Stensen.  Court 

physician  to  Ferdinand  II  and  Cosmos  III  at 
Florence.  Professor  at  Copenhagen.  Proved 
that  the  heart  was  a muscle  and  that  conse- 
quently it  contracted  actively  and  expelled  the 
blood.  Described  the  histology  of  muscle  and 
discovered  Stensen’s  duct.  Entered  the  priest- 
hood, became  Bishop  of  Titiopolis  in  1677.  As 
Apostolic  vicar  of  Hanover  he  endeavoured 
to  convert  Northern  Europe  to  Catholicism, 
while  holding  the  chair  of  anatomy  at 
Copenhagen. 


1 28 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

1638  1700- — Heinrich  Meibom.  Professor  of  medicine  and 
afterwards  of  history  at  Helmstadt.  He  de- 
scribed the  follicles  of  the  eyelids  in  1666. 

1638  1731  — Fridrik  Ruysch.  Surgeon  and  anatomist. 

Professor  of  anatomy  at  Amster- 
dam. Author  of  “ Observationum 
anatomico  — chirurgicarum  cen- 
turia,”  1691.  A master  in  the 
art  of  the  minute  injection  of 
anatomical  structures.  “The 
Tunica  Ruyschiana"  of  the  eye 
commemorates  his  name.  Peter 
the  Great,  who  had  been  his  pupil, 
bought  his  museum  of  anatomical 
specimens,  but  when  they  arrived 
at  St.  Petersburg  it  was  found 
that  the  sailors  had  drunk  the  spirit  in  which 
they  were  preserved.  With  characteristic  energy 
Ruysch  at  once  set  out  to  make  a new  museum. 
He  gave  the  first  description  of  bronchial  blood 
vessels  and  vascular  plexuses  of  the  heart. 

1640-1693. — Thomas  Theodore  Kerckring.  Physician  at 
Amsterdam  and  fellow-worker  with  Ruysch. 
Author  of  “ Speciligium  anatomicum,”  1670, 
and  “ Anthropogeniae  iconographia,”  1670. 
The  large  ossicle  sometimes  present  at  the 
lambdoidal  suture  was  first  described  by  him, 
and  his  name  is  remembered  in  the  valvulse 
conniventes  of  the  small  intestine. 


1 


129 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

1650. — Cinchona  bark  introduced  into  Europe  by  Juan 
del  Yego,  physician  to  the  Count  of  Cinchon, 
and  called  “ Cinchona,”  or  “ Countess’s  bark,” 
in  honour  of  the  Count’s  wife.  Sydenham 
introduced  it  into  England. 

1640- 1700—  Gideon  Haryey.  Born  in  Holland  and  edu- 

cated abroad.  Physician  to  King  Charles  II 
and  afterwards  to  William  III.  Author  of 
the  “ Family  Physician  ” and  several  popular 
works  on  medicine. 

1641- 1687.— Cornelius  van  Solingen,  of  The  Hague. 

Surgeon  who  advanced  the  study  of  obstetrics, 
ophthalmology  and  otology  and  originated 
many  improvements  in  surgical  instruments. 

1641-1673. — Regner  de  Graaf.  M.D.  Physician  of  Delft. 

A pupil  of  Diemenbroeck  and  of 
De  la  Boe  (Sylvius),  demonstrated 
ovulation  anatomically,  patholo- 
gically and  by  experiment.  He 
described  “the  tubular  structure 
of  the  testis.”  He  also  studied 
the  functions  of  the  pancreas  and 
made  an  artificial  biliary  fistula. 
His  name  is  preserved  in  “ The 
Graafian  follicle.”  In  1664  he 
experimented  on  the  secretion  of 
glands  by  tying  a tube  in  the 
duct  of  Wirsung  to  collect  the 
secretion  of  the  pancreas. 


130 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

1651-1705. — William  Briggs,  of  Norwich.  Superinten- 
dent of  St.  Thomas’s  Hospital  in  the  time 
of  Charles  II  and  physician  in  ordinary  to 
William  III.  Author  of  “ Ophthalmographia,” 
1676. 

1651- 1715. — Raymond  Yieussens.  Professor  of  anatomy 

at  Montpellier.  Pagel  described  him  as  the 
“Founder  of  the  pathology  of  diseases  of  the 
heart.”  He  is  said  to  have  dissected  over  five 
hundred  bodies.  The  inferior  medullary  velum 
is  known  as  the  “Valve  of  Vieussens.” 

1652- 1700  (?)• — John  Browne.  Surgeon  in  ordinary  to 

Charles  II  and  St.  Thomas’s  Hospital.  Author 
of  “ A complete  treatise  of  the  muscles  as  they 
appear  in  the  human  body,”  London,  1681, 
illustrated  with  copper-plate  engravings  said  to 
be  the  first  in  which  the  names  were  actually 
printed  on  the  muscles.  He  also  wrote  on  the 
King’s  Evil  and  the  healing  by  Royal  Touch, 
which  has  an  appendix  containing  the  numbers 
of  persons  “ touched  ” from  1660-1682. 

1653- 1703- — Laurence  Bellini.  Professor  of  Philosophy 

at  Pisa,  until  the  Grand  Duke  Ferdinand 
created  a chair  of  anatomy  for  him.  Practised 
in  Florence,  1693,  and  became  physician  to 
Cosmo  III.  An  important  feature  in  his 
teaching  is  the  theory  of  counter-irritation. 
The  tubes  in  the  kidney  which  bear  his  name 
were  first  seen  by  him  in  a deer  sent  to  his 
master  Borelli  for  d:ssection.  Published  ana- 

131 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

tomical  works  on  the  renal  system  and  other 
medical  subjects. 

1653-1679. — John  Mayow.  M.D.Oxon.  A Cormshman. 

Physiologist  and  chemist.  A friend  of  Lower 
and  pupil  of  Willis.  Studied  the  process  of 
respiration  and  observed  “ that  the  particles  of 
the  air  absorbed  during  respiration  are  designed 
to  convert  the  black  or  venous  blood  into  the 
red  or  arterial.”  An  enthusiastic  worker  in 
chemistry.  In  1668  he  claimed  that  air  was 
a mixture  of  two  kinds  of  gases : the  one, 
“ spiritus  nitro-aereus,”  was  necessary  both  for 
combustion  and  respiration,  and  the  other, 
“ spiritus  igneo-aereus,”  incapable  of  combus- 
tion and  respiration.  Although  he  did  not 
separate  the  gas  he  called  “spiritus  nitro- 
aereus”  he  thus  practically  discovered  oxygen. 
He  died,  all  too  young,  of  phthisis,  but  his 
“ Tractatus  quinque  ” which  was  published  in 
1647  remains  a classic.  It  deals  with  the  source 
of  the  body  heat,  which  he  showed  to  be  situ- 
ated in  the  muscles,  a fact  which  was  not  gen- 
erally accepted  until  it  was  substantiated  by 
Helmholtz  two  hundred  years  later. 

1643-1724. — Thomas  Guy.  Founder  of  Guy’s  Hospital. 

He  also  built  additions  to  St.  Thomas’s  Hospital. 

1645-1772. — Jean  Mery.  Chief  Surgeon  to  the  Hotel 
Uieu,  Paris.  In  June,  1684,  he  wrote  a 
communication  to  a Parisian  scientific  journal 
describing  the  bulbo-urethral  glands  ; fifteen 


132 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

years  later  Cowper  announced  the  discovery 
of  these  glands  in  London.  Mery  also  pub- 
lished in  1700  a work  entitled  : “ New  system 
of  the  circulation  of  the  blood.” 

1646- 1721. — James  Young.  Surgeon.  Author  of  a treatise 

on  wounds  of  the  brain  and  other  works  on 
surgery  and  anatomy.  He  wrote  “ Medicaster 
medicatus  ” and  “ Currus  triumphalis  ex  tere- 
binthina,”  London,  1679. 

1647- 1722.— Thomas  Gibson.  M.D.  Leyden.  Physician- 

General  to  the  English  Army.  His  second 
wife  was  the  daughter  of  Richard  Cromwell. 
Published  “ The  anatomy  of  human  bodies 
epitomized  ” in  1682. 

1647- 1732. — Walter  Harris.  Physician.  Educated  at 

Oxford  but  took  his  degree  at  Bourges  in 
France.  He  was  physician  to  King  William 
III  in  1688.  Author  of  work,  “ De  Morbis 
Acutis  Infantum,”  1689,  one  of  the  earliest 
books  devoted  especially  to  the  diseases  of 
children.  It  was  translated  into  English, 
French  and  German. 

1648- 1721. — Matthias  Gottfried  Purmann,  of  Luben  in 

Silesia.  Military  surgeon  and  oculist.  He 
treated  intestinal  wounds  with  simple  suture 
and  was  acquainted  with  bi-manual  examina- 
tion for  stone.  He  performed  the  first  trans- 
fusion in  Germany  with  the  blood  of  a lamb. 


r33 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

1648- 1730. — Joseph  Guichard  Duyerney.  Professor  of 

anatomy  at  Paris.  First  to  describe  the 
diseases  of  the  ear  in  accordance  with  their 
anatomical  position.  Cleared  up  the  confusion 
of  the  nomenclature  of  the  brachial  plexus. 

1649- 1713.  Gottfried  Bidloo.  Professor  of  anatomy  and 

surgery  at  The  Hague  and  Leyden.  Physician 
to  William  III  of  England.  Author  of  “ Ana- 
tomia  humani  corporis,”  Amsterdam,  1685, 
which  is  illustrated  with  one  hundred  and 
seven  fine  plates  by  Gerard  de  Lairesse. 

1649-1730. — Johann  Palfyn.  Gynaecologist  and  inventor 
of  a type  of  midwifery  forceps  which  he 
exhibited  in  Paris  in  1721.  Author  of  a work 
on  monsters. 

1649- 1734.. — Sir  “John  Floyer.  Physician  practising  at 

Lichfield.  Noted  the  relation  of  the  frequency 
of  the  pulse  to  that  of  respiration,  and  intro- 
duced the  minute  watch  to  determine  the  pulse 
rate.  Author  of  “ An  inquiry  into  the  right 
use  of  the  hot,  cold  and  temperate  baths  in 
England,”  1697,  advocating  treatment  with 
cold  water  and  bathing.  It  ran  through  six 
editions  and  was  translated  into  Latin. 

1650- 1692. — Anton  Nuck.  Professor  of  anatomy  and 

surgery  at  Leyden.  Famous  as  an  oculist, 
aurist  and  dentist.  Published  “ Adenographia,” 
1692,  “ Sialographia,”  1690,  and  “ Operationes 


I34 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

et  experimenta  Chirurgica,”  1692.  His  name 
remains  in  anatomy  in  connection  with  the 
canal  of  Nuck. 

1650-1708- — Edward  Tyson.  M.D. Cantab.  Anatomy 

reader  at  the  Surgeons’  Hall.  Professor  of 
physic  at  Gresham  College  and  physician  to 
Bridewell  and  Bethlehem  Hospitals.  Wrote  in 
1699  " A Philological  Essay  concerning  the 
Pygmies  of  the  Ancients”  and  several  works 
on  comparative  anatomy,  describing  dissec- 
tions of  the  opossum  and  porpoise,  the  rattle- 
snake and  the  orang-outang. 

ca.  1679.— R.  Lowdham,  of  Oxford.  Surgeon.  Said  to 
have  been  the  first  to  practise  the  flap  method 
in  amputation. 

1650-1711. — Charles  Bernard.  Serjeant-Surgeon  to  Queen 
Anne  and  a friend  of  Swift.  He  noticed  that 
after  an  operation  for  cancer  the  growth  often 
re-appeared  and  was  the  first  English  surgeon 
to  place  the  fact  on  record.  He  collected  a 
very  fine  library. 

ca.  1695- — John  Colbatch.  Apothecary,  physician  and 
surgeon.  Author  of  “ A new  light  on  chirur- 
gerie,”  1695,  in  which  he  recommends  a vul- 
nerary powder  and  hot  water  in  the  treatment 
of  wounds  and  haemorrhage. 

1650-1729- — John  Radcliffe.  Physician.  His  fortune 
endowed  the  Radcliffe  Camera,  the  Radcliffe 
Infirmary  and  the  travelling  medical  fellowships 


T35 


The  Seventeenth  Century 

at  Oxford.  Succeeded  to  the  practice  of  Richard 
Lower  at  a time  when  success  was  largely  a 
matter  of  politics.  The  first  possessor  of  the 
“ gold-headed  cane.”  His  successor  was  the 
“ Princely  Mead.” 

1651- 1725.— Hendrik  vail  Deventer.  M.D.Gronigen. 

Began  as  apprentice  to  a goldsmith  but  after- 
wards studied  obstetrics  in  which  he  greatly 
advanced  existing  knowledge,  especially  in 
connection  with  contracted  pelvis.  His  obstet- 
rical work  “ Operationes  chirurgicas,”  1724, 
was  translated  into  Dutch,  French,  German 
and  English.  He  also  interested  himself  in 
orthopaedics.  He  practised  at  The  Hague. 

1652- 1712 — Johann  Conrad  Peyer,  of  Schaffhausen. 

Morbid  anatomist.  Professor  of  rhetoric, 
logic,  and  medicine  in  the  University  of  Bale. 
He  described  the  glands  of  the  intestines,  gave 
his  name  to  “ Peyer’s  patches  ” and  wrote  on 
the  subject  of  digestion  in  Ruminants. 

J 652-1 723.  Augustus  Quirinus  Rivinus.  Botanist  and 
anatomist.  Professor  of  physiology  and  ana- 
tomy at  Leipsic.  He  wrote  “ A general 
introduction  to  botany,”  1690,  and  medical 
works  in  1678  and  1717  describing  the  ducts 
of  the  sublingual  gland  and  the  notch  in  the 
tympanum  which  bear  his  name. 

d.  1775.— Georg  Arnaud  de  Ronsil.  Surgeon.  Studied 
in  Paris,  practised  in  London.  Wrote  on 

136 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

hernia,  aneurysm,  diseases  of  the  ureters  and 
bladder,  as  well  as  two  volumes  on  the  his- 
tory of  medicine  and  surgery  in  France  and 
England. 

1653-1727- — Johann  Conrad  Brunner,  of  Regensburg. 

Professor  of  medicine  in  Heidelberg.  Dis- 
coverer of  the  duodenal  glands  bearing  his 
name.  Court  physician  at  Diisseldorf.  Author 
of  “ Experimenta  nova  circa  pancreas,”  1682. 

1653- 1729- — Sir  Richard  Blackmore.  Physician  and 

poet,  educated  at  Westminster  and  Oxford, 
practised  in  London.  Physician  to  King 
William  III.  Wrote  “ Prince  Arthur,”  “ The 
Satyr  against  Wit,”  and  “ Eliza,”  with  the 
avowed  object  of  improving  the  moral  tone  of 
literature  debased  by  Congreve,  Dryden  and 
others.  He  also  wrote  several  medical  treatises. 

1654- 1720. — John  Maria  Lancisi.  Professor  at  the  Colle- 

gio  da  Sapiencia  at  Rome,  1684-97.  Physician 
and  chamberlain  to  Popes  Innocent  XI  and 
XII  and  Clement  XI.  Published  in  1684  “ De 
sede  animae  cognitantis  ” in  which  he  described 
the  corpus  callosum.  He  published  in  1704 
the  thirty-eight  plates  prepared  by  Eustachius 
in  1552,  which  were  rescued  by  Clement  XI 
from  the  family  of  the  artist.  He  wrote  on 
aneurysm  and  heart  disease  as  causes  of  sudden 
death.  The  “ nerves  of  Lancisi  ” commemorate 
him. 


I37 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

1655-1735- — Bernardine  Genga.  Professor  of  anatomy 
and  surgery  in  Rome  and  surgeon  to  the 
Santo  Spirito  Hospital.  A strenuous  supporter 
of  Harvey’s  doctrine,  which  he  greatly  advanced 
in  Italy.  He  had  the  courage  to  charge  Hippo- 
crates with  grave  errors  in  surgical  treatment. 

1656(?)-1725(?). — Abraham  Cyprianus.  Practised  first  in 
Amsterdam  as  a lithotomist ; became  Professor 
of  medicine  and  surgeon  in  Franeker,  1693. 
Operated  successfully  on  a case  of  tubal 
pregnancy  in  1694.  Settled  in  practice  in 
London,  Within  twelve  years  he  performed 
1,400  lithotomies. 

1658-1751.— Francisco  Torti,  of  Modena.  Physician  and 
pharmacologist.  Introduced  cinchona  into 
Italy  and  mentions  it  in  his  book  on  pernicious 
fevers  published  in  1712. 

ca.  1658  1718. — Pierre  Dionis.  Surgeon-in-ordinary  to  the 
Queen  of  France  and  the  Empress  Maria 
. Theresa.  Author  of  several  treatises  on  surgery 
and  anatomy  and  the  first  to  emphasize  the 
effect  of  rickets  on  the  pelvis.  The  first  to 
demonstrate  anatomical  dissections  and  surgical 
operations  at  the  Jardin  du  Roi. 

1660-1702. — Clopton  Havers.  M.D.  of  Utrecht.  Prac- 
tised in  London,  and  studied  anatomy.  Was 
the  first  “ Gale  reader”  at  the  Barber  Surgeons’ 
Company.  Published  his  “ Osteologia,”  in 
which  he  described  in  1691  the  canals  which 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

bear  his  name.  He  also  wrote  “ A Survey  of 
the  Microcosm  ” in  1695. 

1660-1734. — Georg  Ernst  Stahl.  Physician  and  professor 
of  pathology  and  dietetics  at  Halle.  Founder 
of  a system  of  medicine  in  which  the  “soul” 
(anima)  played  the  leading  part  as  the  life- 
giving  principle  which  imparts  life  to  dead 
matter.  He  gave  a clear  account  of  lachrymal 
fistula  and  foreshadowed  psychotherapy. 

1660-1742- — Friedrich  Hoffman.  Epidemiologist  and 
iatro-mechanical  physician.  Professor  of  ana- 
tomy and  surgery  at  Halle.  He  was  one  of 
the  first  to  describe  rubella,  gave  an  original 
description  of  chlorosis  and  left  an  account  of 
a typhus  epidemic.  He  revived  the  use  of 
mineral  baths  and  had  a clear  perception  that 
pathology  is  an  aspect  of  physiology. 

1660- 1753. — Sir  Hans  Sloane.  Physician,  antiquary  and 

collector.  President  of  the  Royal  Society,  1727. 
His  collection  of  antiquities  and  manuscripts 
formed  the  nucleus  of  the  British  Museum. 

1661- 1708. — Francois  Poupart.  French  naturalist  and 

anatomist.  He  studied  medicine  because  he 
thought  it  necessary  for  the  completion  of  his 
knowledge  of  natural  history.  He  lived  and 
died  in  dire  poverty,  but  was  a brilliant 
scientist.  The  “hernia”  surgeons  of  the  18th 
century  are  responsible  for  associating  the 


139 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

aponeurosis  with  his  name;  Falloppius  and 
Vesalius  had  described  it  a century  earlier. 

1661-1719. — Sir  Samuel  Garth.  Physician  and  author  of 
the  famous  poem  “ The  Dispensary,”  1699, 
which  gives  a satirical  account  of  the  dispute 
between  the  physicians  and  the  apothecaries 
over  their  charges. 

1664-1726. — Antonio  Pacchioni.  Italian  anatomist.  Pub- 
lished various  works  on  the  anatomy  of  the 
brain  and  its  membranes,  maintaining  with 
much  ingenuity  a theory  that  the  dura  mater 
acted  as  a muscular  force  by  alternative  con- 
traction on  the  cerebrum  and  cerebellum.  He 
described  the  “ Pacchionian  ” bodies. 

1664-1752.- — Thomas  Dover.  B.A.  Oxford,  1684,  M.B. 

Cambridge,  1687,  a resident  pupil  of  Thomas 
Sydenham;  practised  in  Bristol  in  1708;  sailed 
as  second  captain  and  was  captain  of  Marines  in 
the  “ Duke  ” belonging  to  the  Merchant  Adven- 
turers of  Bristol.  He  brought  back  Alexander 
Selkirk,  the  original  of  Robinson  Crusoe.  Dr. 
Dover  practised  for  some  time  at  Bristol.  He 
used  crude  mercury  and  was  the  originator  of 
Dover’s  Powder  (pulv.  ipecac,  et  opii). 

1665. — The  Great  Plague  of  London. 

ca.  1665-70. — Midwifery  forceps  invented  by  Peter 
Chamberlen.  William  Giffard  -was  the  earliest 
to  describe  and  depict  midwifery  forceps,  about 
1734  (see  page  165). 


140 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

1666-1709. — William  Cowper.  Surgeon  and  anatomist, 
F.R.S.  Published  in  1694  “ Myo- 
tomia  reformata,”  and  “ The 
Anatomy  of  Humane  Bodies  ” in 
1698.  He  was  fiercely  accused 
by  Bidloo  of  plagiarising  his 
plates  in  the  latter  work.  In  the 
course  of  tho  ensuing  contro- 
versy he  described  the  glands 
which  bear  his  name,  1702.  He 
was  the  first  to  publish  a represen- 
tation of  the  thoracic  duct  in  man. 
He  had  a large  surgical  practice 
in  London. 

1666-1723. — Antonio  Maria  Valsalva,  of  Imola.  Anato- 
mist and  pupil  of  Malpighi.  He  was  professor 
of  anatomy  at  Bologna,  and  specialized  in 
otology.  His  method  of  inflating  the  middle 
ear  is  still  practised.  Author  of  “ De  Aure 
humana,”  1705. 

1668-1707. — Giorgio  Baglivi.  Iatro-mathematical  physi- 
cian and  professor  of  medicine  and  anatomy 
in  Rome.  Called  “ The  Italian  Sydenham.” 
Spent  much  time  at  experimental  physiology 
which  he  valued  highly;  he  gave  a clear  de- 
scription of  typhoid  which  he  called  “ The 
Mesenteric  Fever  of  Rome.”  Published  several 
works  on  medicine.  He  endeavoured  to  divide 
diseases  into  those  of  the  blood  and  vital  spirits. 
The  Iatro-mathematical  school  taught  that 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

physiological  processes  were  explicable  by  the 
laws  of  physics.  The  Iatro-chemical  school 
regarded  all  vital  phenomena  as  essentially 
chemical.  Chemistry  was  practically  non- 
existent at  the  time,  and  the  main  laws  of 
physics  were  only  dimly  discerned. 

1668- 1738.— Hermann  Boerhaave,  of  Leyden.  Physician. 
Lecturer  on  medicine  and  botany, 
and  professor  of  chemistry  at 
Leyden.  A man  of  great  talent 
who  did  much  to  further  the 
advance  of  science  in  the  18th 
century.  He  claimed  Hippocrates 
and  Sydenham  as  his  models,  and 
was  the  first  to  establish  the  clin- 
ical method  of  instruction.  His 
well-known  aphorisms  influenced 
medical  practice  throughout  the 
1 8th  century.  He  was  the  first 
to  make  a chemical  examination 

of  the  urine.  He  had  the  largest  medical 
practice  in  Europe,  and  was  remarkable  alike 
for  his  knowledge  and  for  the  affection  he 
inspired  in  his  pupils  and  patients. 

1669- 1760.— Jacques-Benigne  Winslow.  Danish  pro- 

fessor of  physic,  anatomy  and  surgery  at  the 
Jardin  du  Roi,  Paris.  He  was  the  author  of  ana- 
tomical and  pathological  works.  The  ligament 
and  foramen  commemorate  him. 

1671-1753. — George  Cheyne.  Physician.  Declared  the 

142 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

lowering  of  the  elasticity  of  the  “ fibres  ” to  be  a 
general  cause  of  disease,  but  deduced  ordinary 
fever  from  a stoppage  of  the  glands,  and  linger- 
ing fever  from  atony  of  those  organs.  He  wrote 
works  on  scurvy  and  longevity. 

1673-1755. — Richard  Mead.  Physician  and  epidemiologist. 

Author  of  many  works  on  medi- 
cine and  of  the  first  quarantine 
regulations  adopted  in  England. 
He  succeeded  Dr.  Radcliffe  in 
practice  in  London,  and  was 
thesecond  owner  of  the  “gold- 
headed cane.”  He  was  known  as 
“ Princely  Mead.”  He  was  called 
to  attend  Queen  Anne  in  her  final 
illness  and  became  the  most 
prosperous  physician  of  his  time. 


1673-1719. — James  Keill,  of  Northampton.  Physician 
who  spent  eight  years  in  confirming  the 
experiments  of  Sanctorius.  He  computed 
the  velocity  of  the  blood  in  the  aorta  at 
73  feet  per  minute  and  the  force  of  the  heart 
at  nearly  eight  ounces. 

-1735. — Robert  Houston.  M.D.  Practised  in  Glasgow 
where  he  successfully  emptied  an  ovarian  cyst 
after  incision  in  1701.  Afterwards  he  resided  in 
London  and  practised  in  Westminster,  where 
in  1717  he  operated  on  a case  of  extra-uterine 
pregnancy. 


H3 


The  Eighteenth  Century 


1674- 1750- — Jean  Louis  Petit.  French  surgeon  and 

anatomist  of  distinction.  First  director  of 
the  Academie  de  Chirurgie  of  Paris.  Foreign 
member  of  the  Royal  Society  of  London. 
Wrote  on  surgical  subjects.  Several  ana- 
tomical structures  bear  his  name. 

1675-  • — William  Cole,  of  Bristol.  He  considered 

the  tension  of  the  nervous  system,  due  to  a 
deposit  of  abnormal  material  upon  the  nerve 
roots,  to  be  the  usual  cause  of  fever  and  espe- 
cially of  the  symptoms  of  irritation  occurring  in 
fever.  He  also  taught  the  constant  expansion 
of  the  arterial  system  towards  the  capillaries. 
1675-1721. — Martin  Naboth.  Professor  of  Medicine  at 
Leipzic.  Described  the  “ ovules  ” which  bear 
his  name  in  1704,  and  published  a work  on 
sterility  in  women  in  1717. 

1675-1728. — John  Freind.  M.D.Oxon.  Classical  scholar, 
Jacobite  physician  and  the  first 
English  historian  of  Medicine. 
Edited  a Greek  and  Latin  edition 
of  iEschines  and  Demosthenes 
and  a reprint  of  the  Delphin 
edition  of  Ovid’s  Metamorphoses. 
His  “ History  of  Physic  from  the 
time  of  Galen  to  the  beginning  of 
the  Sixteenth  Century,”  written 
while  imprisoned  in  the  Tower, 
was  published  in  two  volumes  in 
1725  and  1726. 


r44 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

1675-1742.  — James  Douglas.  M.D.  Rheims.  F.R.S. 

Physician  to  Queen  Caroline.  Practised  in 
Red  Lion  Square,  and  gave  public  dissections 
in  his  house.  Published  in  1707  a work  on 
Myology,  and  in  1730,  a description  of  the 
peritoneum,  in  which  he  gave  a description  of 
the  fold  and  pouch  which  bear  his  name. 

1678-1747- — Francois  de  Lapeyronie.  Taught  anatomy 
and  surgery  at  Montpellier,  and  at  the  College 
of  St.  Come  in  Paris.  Chief  surgeon  of  the 
Charite.  One  of  the  founders  of  the  French 
Academie  Royale  de  Chirurgie. 

1680- 1763- — William  Smellie,  of  London.  Obstetrician. 

Inventor  of  numerous  instruments,  including 
midwifery  forceps  with  a simple  lock,  which 
became  known  as  the  English  lock,  also  per- 
forators and  blunt  hooks.  His  first  forceps 
were  made  of  wood,  and  afterwards  he  used 
metal  blades  covered  with  leather.  Author 
of  “ Treatise  on  the  Theory  and  Practice  of 
Midwifery,”  London,  1752.  He  considerably 
advanced  the  knowledge  of  the  position  of  the 
head  during  labour,  and  also  of  the  contracted 
pelvis. 

1681 —  Royal  College  of  Physicians  of  Edinburgh 

founded. 

1681-1737- — Giovanni  Domenico  Santorini.  Anatomist, 
born  at  Venice,  a pupil  of  Malpighi.  His  name 
is  preserved  in  the  cartilages  of  Santorini. 
k H5 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

1682- 1772  — Giovanni  Battista  Morgagni,  of  Forli.  The 

founder  of  pathological  anatomy 
and  professor  at  Padua.  He 
was  the  first  to  devote  exclusive 
attention  to  the  anatomical  results 
of  common  diseases.  Author  of 
“ Adversaria  anatomica,”  1706, 
and  “ De  sedibus  et  causis  mor- 
borum  per  anatomen  indagatis 
libri  quinque,”  Venice,  1761, 
which  he  published  in  his  79th 
year.  In  this  work  he  draws 
attention  to  syphilitic  aneurysm 
and  disease  of  the  mitral  valve.  He  identi- 
fied the  clinical  features  of  pneumonia  with 
solidification  of  the  lungs,  and  described  what 
is  now  known  as  the  “ Morgagnian  cataract.” 

1683- 1758- — Lorenz  Heister,  of  Frankfort-on-Main. 

Was  a military  surgeon  in  the  Dutch  army. 
Author  of  well -illustrated  works  on  surgery 
and  anatomy,  which  were  popular  in  his 
time,  and  were  translated  into  English.  He 
became  professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery  in 
Altdorf. 

1684- 1751. — Abraham  Yater.  Professor  of  botany,  ana- 

tomy, pathology  and  therapeutics  at  Witten- 
berg. He  describes  the  papilla  named  after 
him,  as  a bile  duct  joined  to  the  pancreatic 
duct,  in  a work  published  in  1710.  In  his 
146 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

“ Dissertatio  de  concensu  partium,”  1741,  he 
described  the  Pacinian  corpuscles. 

1684-1766- — Jean  Astruc.  French  surgeon  and  obstet- 
rician. He  wrote  the  history  of 

syphilis  and  venereal  diseases  in 

1736  which  remains  a most  useful 
record.  It  went  through  several 
editions  and  was  translated  into 
English.  Author  also  of  “Traiteae? 
maladies  desfemmes,”  Paris,  1761. 
He  became  professor  of  anatomy 
at  Toulouse  in  1710  and  of 
medicine  at  Montpellier  in  1716. 

About  1728  he  removed  to  Paris 

and  was  appointed  consulting 
physician  to  the  King  and  professor  of  medicine 
in  1730. 

1686-1732. — Adrian  Christian  Thebesius.  Practised 
medicine  at  Hirschberg  in  Silesia.  He  wrote 
a work  on  the  circulation  of  the  blood  in  the 
heart  in  1708,  describing  the  vessels  (venae 
minimae  Thebesii)  and  the  valve  of  the 
coronary  sinus. 

1686-1736- — Gabriel  Daniel  Fahrenheit.  German  natural 
philosopher  who  resided  in  Amsterdam.  He 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  use  mercury 
in  a thermometer.  He  fixed  the  zero  point  of 
his  instrument  at  the  lowest  degree  to  which 
the  mercury  sank  in  the  winter  of  1709. 


H7 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

1888  1752 — William  Cheselden.  Surgeon,  anatomist, 
lithotomist  and  oculist.  Surgeon 
to  Queen  Caroline,  and  to  St. 
Thomas’  and  Chelsea  Hospitals. 
Author  of  “Osteology,  or  the 
Anatomy  of  the  Bones,”  1733, 
“Anatomy  of  the  Human  Body,” 
1714.  Introduced  the  formation 
of  an  artificial  pupil  by  a simple 
incision  of  the  iris  made  with  a 
needle  introduced  through  the 
sclera.  He  was  a very  rapid 
operator,  especially  in  lithotomy. 
He  often  performed  the  suprapubic  operation. 

-1759- — John  Douglas.  Surgeon  to  Westminster 
Hospital.  He  re-introduced  the  operation  of 
suprapubic  lithotomy. 

1693  1762- — Jacques  Daviel-  Practised  first  at  Marseilles 
and  from  1746  at  Paris.  He  originated  the 
operation  of  extraction  for  cataract  in  place  of 
“ couching.” 

1694-1768- — John  Huxham.  Epidemiologist ; a pupil  of 
Boerhaave.  Drew  attention  to  diphtheritic 
paralysis  in  1757  and  to  the  colic  following 
cider  drinking  in  Devonshire,  due  to  lead 
used  in  the  presses.  The  association  of  cider 
drinking  and  lead  colic  was  not  made  until 
1767,  when  Sir  George  Baker  described  them 
as  cause  and  effect. 

148 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

1697  1767  — Alexander  Monro,  Senior.  Professor  of 
anatomy  and  surgery  at  the  University  of 
Edinburgh.  A pupil  of  Boerhaave  and  a remark- 
able teacher.  His  son  and  grandson  succeeded 
him  in  the  professorship,  which  remained  in  the 
family  from  1720  to  1846.  Author  of  “ Osteo- 
logy, or  a Treatise  on  the  Anatomy  of  the 
Bones,”  1726,  and  “An  Essay  on  Comparative 
Anatomy,”  1744.  The  French  translation  of 
the  Osteology  is  unusually  well  illustrated  with 
fine  copperplates,  prepared  under  the  personal 
supervision  of  Mile.  Genevieve  d’Arconville. 

1697-1770-  — Bernhard  Siegfried  Albinus.  Born  at 
Frankfort-on-Oder.  Professor  of  Anatomy  in 
Leyden  for  fifty  years.  A pioneer  in  modern 
human  anatomy.  He  published  a series  of 
illustrated  anatomical  works  (1726-1762)  in 
which  the  drawings  are  made  to  scale  by  J. 
Wandelaer,  an  artist  whom  he  trained  specially 
for  the  purpose.  They  probably  represent  the 
zenith  of  anatomical  pictures. 

ca.  1750  — Jacques  Mesnard,  of  Rouen.  Surgeon  of  Rouen 
and  advocate  of  the  forceps  in  midwifery.  He 
described  the  forceps  he  invented  in  1741. 
Author  of  “ Le  guide  des  accouchements,” 
1743.  He  also  devised  and  used  a double 
crotchet. 

1700  1772- — Gerhard  van  Swieten,  of  Leyden.  Settled 
in  Vienna,  entered  the  Church,  and  became 


149 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

physician  and  president  of  the  General  Medical 
Department  of  Austria.  Founder  of  the  old 
Vienna  School  of  Medicine.  He  used  the 
Fahrenheit  thermometer  and  advocated  the  use 
of  corrosive  sublimate  in  the  treatment  of 
syphilis.  His  name  is  preserved  in  the  Liquor 
van  Swieten,  an  alcoholic  solution  of  corrosive 
sublimate,  which  is  still  in  use.  He  was  a 
skilful  stenographer,  and  acted  as  censor  of 
books  to  the  Court. 

1700  1778- — Samuel  Sharp.  Born  in  Jamaica.  A pupil 
of  Cheselden  and  surgeon  to  Guy’s  Hospital, 
1733-1757.  Wrote  a “ Treatise  on  the  Opera- 
tions of  Surgery  ” which  passed  through  manv 
editions  and  was  translated  into  French  and 
Spanish.  Also  a “ Critical  Enquiry  into  the; 
Present  State  of  Surgery,”  which  was  translated 
into  French,  Spanish,  German  and  Italian.  He 
was  the  first  surgeon  to  practise  the  corneal 
incision  in  the  cataract  operation  and  he 
invented  a knife  for  the  purpose. 

1703  1776. — Robert  James.  Physician.  Practised  in 
Sheffield,  Lichfield,  Birmingham,  and  finally 
in  London.  Author  of  several  medical  works, 
and  originator  of  the  famous  James’  Fever 
Powder,  a preparation  of  antimony,  which 
became  very  popular  and  is  still  used.  He 
was  a friend  of  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,  the 
lexicographer. 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

1703  1780- — Andre  Levret,  of  Paris.  Obstetrician.  Im- 

proved the  operation  of  version.  Invented 
a type  of  midwifery  forceps  and  introduced 
the  pelvic  curve  in  the  blades.  Author  of 
“ Traite  sur  l’art  des  accouchements,”  Paris, 
1 753- 

1704  1776- — Anton  de  Haen,  of  The  Hague.  A pupil  of 

Boerhaave ; a colleague  of  Van  Swieten,  and 
associated  with  him  in  the  foundation  of  the 
old  Vienna  School.  Advocate  of  simplicity 
in  treatment.  He  used  a clinical  thermometer, 
wrote  a treatise  on  medicine  in  fifteen  volumes, 
and  was  a firm  believer  in  witchcraft. 

1705  1780- — Hieronymus  David  Gaub,  of  Heidelberg. 

A pupil  of  Boerhaave.  Professor  of  chemistry 
at  Leyden,  and  author  of  the  first  complete 
work  on  pathology,  viz.,  “ Institutiones  patho- 
logiae  medicinalis,”  Leyden,  1750,  which  long 
remained  a textbook  throughout  Europe,  and 
was  translated  into  Dutch,  German  and  French. 

d.  1784- — Thomas  Goulard.  Surgeon.  Royal  Demon- 
strator of  Surgery  and  Anatomy  at  Montpellier, 
where  he  was  also  Surgeon-Major  in  charge 
of  the  Military  Hospital.  Advocated  and 
introduced  the  use  of  solutions  of  lead  salts 
into  surgery.  He  wrote  on  venereal  disease 
and  was  the  originator  of  the  formula  for 
Goulard  water  in  1760. 

1706  1790. — Benjamin  Franklin.  Physician,  of  Boston. 

Invented  the  bifocal  lens  and  a flexible  catheter. 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

He  treated  nervous  diseases  by  electricity,  and 
was  the  chief  founder  of  the  Pennsylvania 
Hospital.  He  wrote  on  many  subjects,  including 
“ Dialogue  with  the  gout,”  Inoculation  in  small- 
pox, Infant  mortality,  Sleep,  Deafness  and 
Medical  education. 

1707-1779. — Nathan  Alcock.  M.D.  Lecturer  on  anatomy 
and  chemistry  at  Oxford,  pupil  of  Boerhaave. 
He  practised  in  Runcorn,  Cheshire,  his  native 
town.  He  is  commemorated  by  the  canal  in 
which  the  internal  pudic  vessels  and  nerves  run 
across  the  perineum. 

1707-1788.— Louis  Le  Clerc,  Comte  de  Buffon.  Superin- 
tendent of  the  Jardin  du  Roi.  The  first  to 
express  clearly  the  idea  that  unity  of  plan  in 
the  animal  kingdom  is  to  be  explained  by 
community  of  origin.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
he  genuinely  believed  in  evolution  as  we  under- 
stand it,  or  whether  he  only  held  the  doctrine 
tentatively. 

1703-1777. — Albert  Yon  Haller.  Botanist,  physiologist, 
anatomist,  medical  bibliographer  and  poet. 
Born  at  Berne.  He  was  a pupil  of  Boerhaave. 
At  the  University  of  Gottingen  he  taught  medi- 
cine for  17  years,  having  already  made  his 
reputation  as  a botanist.  Was  professor  of 
anatomy  and  director  of  the  hospital  at  Berne, 
1753.  Propounded  the  doctrine  of  irritability, 
and  added  greatly  to  the  knowledge  of  the 
heart.  May  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  most 


152 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

acute  medical  intellects  in  the  eighteenth 
century. 

1708-1779. — Thomas  Cadwalader.  Physician  of  Phila- 
delphia. Founder  of  the  Philadelphia  Library, 
a pioneer  of  inoculation  and  the  first  to  teach 
anatomy  in  that  city  by  dissections.  Author 
of  “Essay  on  the  West  India  Dry-Gripes” 
(1745)  : described  lead  colic  and  lead  palsy 
resulting  from  rum  distilled  through  lead  pipes. 

1710-1786.  — Jacques  Gautier  d’Agoty.  Physician, 
anatomist  and  artist.  Pupil  of  le  Blonde.  He 
claimed  to  be  the  inventor  of  the  four-colour 
process  of  printing.  He  published  a number 
of  works  and  atlases  with  coloured  plates  on 
myology  and  anatomy. 

1710-1790. — William  Cullen,  of  Lanarkshire.  Physician. 

A great  clinical  teacher.  Pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Glasgow 
and  Edinburgh.  Founder  of  a 
system  of  medicine  in  which  he 
believed  the  chief  agent  to  be  the 
nerves,  and  that  the  brain  was 
indissolubly  united  with  the  soul. 
He  divided  all  internal  diseases 
into  four  classes:  (1)  Pyrexiae; 

(2)  Neuroses,  or  nervous  diseases; 

(3)  Cachexiae,  or  diseases  arising 
from  a bad  habit  of  the  body  ; (4 


153 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

Locales,  or  local  diseases.  His  therapeu- 
tics were  simple,  and  he  deplored  excessive 
venesection.  He  introduced  clinical  teaching. 
His  book,  “ First  Lines  of  the  Practice  of 
Physic,”  published  in  1776,  had  a very  wide 
reputation. 

1710  1801. — William  Heberden,  of  London.  F.R.S. 

Clinical  physician.  First  to  de- 
scribe varicella  and  angina  pec- 
toris. The  connecting  link 
between  Sydenham  and  Bright. 
His  name  lives  in  “ Heberden’s 
nodes.”  His  “ Commentaries,” 
written  in  Latin,  were  published 
after  his  death.  He  practised 
in  London  from  1748,  and  ac- 
quired a high  reputation.  In 
1745  he  attacked  the  use  of  the- 
riaca  and  other  polypharmic  com- 
pounds in  his  “ Antitheriaka,” 
and  demonstrated  their  futility  as  serious 
remedies. 

1711-1746. — Johann  Nathaniel  Lieberkuhn.  German 
anatomist.  Practised  in  Berlin.  Fellow  of 
the  Royal  Society  of  London.  A very  skilful 
injector.  Described  his  crypts  in  a “ Dis- 
sertation on  the  structure  of  the  intestine,” 
I744- 


J54 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

1711- 1778.  — Laura  Maria  Catarina  Bassi  - Yarati. 

Graduated  at  Bologna  in  1731  ; 
one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the 
many  women  who  took  the  double 
doctorate  in  philosophy  and  medi- 
cine at  this  University.  Sub- 
sequently lectured  on  philosophy 
in  the  University,  and  practised 
medicine  in  the  town.  Was 
chiefly  an  experimental  physicist, 
and  became  professor  of  this 
subject  in  1776.  For  many  years 
she  delivered  the  Annual  Dis- 
course on  the  occasion  of  the 
public  dissection. 

1712  1780-—  John  Fothergill,  of  London.  Quaker  physi- 
cian. He  wrote  an  excellent  clinical  monograph 
“On  malignant  sore  throat”  which  was  either 
scarlet  fever  or  diphtheria.  It  had  a large 
circulation  and  was  translated  into  several 
languages. 

1712- 1781. — Exupere  Joseph  Bertin.  Anatomist  to  the 

Academy  in  Paris.  Physician  to  the  Hospodar 
of  Wallachia  and  Moldavia.  Made  discoveries 
in  comparative  anatomy,  particularly  with 
reference  to  the  musculature  of  the  equine 
stomach,  and  the  lachrymal  apparatus. 


155 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

1712- 1789.-  Angelique  Marguerite  Leboursier  du  Cou- 
dray.  Midwife  of  Paris.  Inven- 
tor of  the  obstetrical  “ phantome,” 
with  which  she  went  about  the 
country  lecturing  to  the  ignorant 
local  midwives.  Author,  1759,  of 
“ Abrege  de  l’art  des  accouche- 
ments  avec  plusieurs  observa- 
tions sur  des  cas  singuliers,” 
which  passed  through  six  edi- 
tions. She  founded  many  mater- 
nity hospitals  in  the  large  cities 
of  France,  and  in  1766  she  gave 

a course  of  lectures  to  the  doctors  of  the  Naval 
School  of  Rochefort. 

1713- 1788. — Percivall  Pott.  Surgeon  to  St.  Bartholo- 

mew's Hospital  1749-87,  and  a great  teacher 
of  surgery.  Author  of  “ Chirurgical  Works,” 
1771.  Authority  on  spinal  diseases,  hernia, 
fistula  and  injuries  to  the  skull,  &c.  The  terms 
“ Pott’s  fracture,”  “ Pott’s  disease  of  the 
spine  ” and  “ Pott’s  puffy  swelling  ” are  still  in 
use  and  perpetuate  his  name. 

fl.  1715. — Emanuel  Timoni.  A physician  of  Constanti- 
nople, who  studied  medicine  at  Padua  and 
Oxford,  and  gave  the  first  account  of  inocula- 
tion for  smallpox  before  the  Royal  Society  in 
London  in  1713. 


156 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

1716- 1775  — Anna  Morandi-Manzolini.  Wife  of  Jean 

Manzolini,  the  painter,  who  was  engaged  with 
his  master,  Hercule  Lelli,  on  a number  of 
anatomical  wax  models  for  the  “ Camera  ” of 
Pope  Benedict  XIV.  The  two  artists  quar- 
relled, and  Anna  took  up  the  work  in  order 
to  prevent  the  loss  of  the  contract,  and  soon 
excelled  her  husband  in  skill.  She  was  subse- 
quently given  a chair  of  anatomy  at  Bologna 
in  order  that  she  might  lecture  in  the  Univer- 
sity. Her  famous  models  were  acquired  soon 
after  her  death,  for  the  city. 

1717- 1783. — Charles  Linnaeus  (von  Linne).  Botanist. 

The  father  of  systematic  botany.  Professor  of 
physic  and  botany  at  Upsala.  Physician  to 
the  King  of  Sweden.  Founder  of  the  Stock- 
holm Academy.  Created  the  order  Primates 
and  was  the  first  to  include  man  in  a zoological 
order. 

-1781. — George  Armstrong.  Pioneer  and  first  in 
Europe  to  open  a hospital  for  children  in  1769. 

-1765. — John  Laurance  Gasser.  Professor  of  ana- 
tomy at  Vienna  1757-1765.  Said  to  have 
been  a great  dissector,  but  practically  nothing 
is  known  of  him  except  that  his  pupil  Raymund 
Balthasar  Hirsch,  in  his  only  published  paper, 
named  the  ganglion  which  he  had  discovered 
the  “ Gasserian  ganglion  ” in  order  that  his 
beloved  master  might  not  be  forgotten. 


I57 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

1718-1783. — William  Hunter.  Born  at  Long  Calder- 
wood,  Scotland.  Obstetrician 
and  anatomist.  Settled  in  Lon- 
don, 1741.  Lectured  on  anatomy 
and  surgery  in  Great  Windmill 
Street,  London.  Appointed 
physician  to  the  Queen,  1764. 
Author  of  “ Anatomia  Humani 
Uteri  Gravidi,”  1774.  It  is  illus- 
trated with  life-size  copperplates 
anatomically  exact  and  artistically 
perfect.  In  some  ways  an  even 
greater  man  than  John  Hunter, 
his  younger  brother.  He  had  wider  interests, 
but  less  originality.  His  great  collection  of 
normal  and  pathological  anatomy,  manuscripts 
and  books,  now  forms  the  Hunterian  Museum 
of  the  University  of  Glasgow. 

1719. — Westminster  Hospital,  London,  established. 

1720- 1793.— Charles  Bonnet.  French  naturalist  and 

entomologist.  Gives  in  his  “ Contemplation 
de  la  nature,”  1764,  the  most  complete  expres- 
sion of  the  idea  of  a “ scale  of  beings”  which 
he  extends  to  the  whole  universe. 

1721- 1770.  — Mark  Akenside.  M.D.,  F.R.S.  Studied  at 

Edinburgh  and  Leyden.  Practised  at  North- 
ampton and  in  London.  Goulstonian  lecturer 
at  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians,  1755,  on 
the  function  of  the  lymphatic  system  ; physician 
to  St.  Thomas’  Hospital.  Author  of  various 

158 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

medical  papers.  Harveian  orator,  1760,  and 
Croonian  lecturer,  1770,  R.C.P.  He  wrote  many 
poems,  the  best  known  being  “ The  Pleasures 
of  Imagination,”  first  published  in  1744. 

1722- 1776. — Theophile  de  Bordeu.  Physician  and  ana- 

tomist of  Montpellier.  Maintained  that  every 
disease  was  decided  by  a crisis,  and  his  thera- 
peutics were  aimed  at  the  production  of  the 
crises,  which  in  chronic  diseases  he  accelerated 
by  the  use  of  stimulants.  He  was  one  of  the 
originators  of  the  doctrine  of  vital  force.  He 
had  some  premonition  of  the  internal  secretion 
of  glands. 

1722  1789. — Peter  Camper.  Anthropologist.  Professor 
of  anatomy  at  Amsterdam  and  of  medicine  at 
Genoa.  He  first  proposed  symphysiotomy,  and 
introduced  the  “facial  angle”  as  a criterion  of 
race.  He  is  remembered  by  the  “ fascia  of 
Camper.” 

1723- 1795. — Christopher  Gottlob  Kratzenstein,  of  Wer- 

nigerode.  Professor  in  Copenhagen.  The  first 
to  employ  electricity  as  curative  treatment  in 
cases  of  weakness  and  paralysis. 

1724- 1816. — Jacques  Rene  Tenon.  French  army  surgeon. 

Professor  of  pathology  at  Paris.  Author  of 
many  medical  works  ; that  on  the  anatomy, 
pathology  and  surgery  of  the  eye  was  pub- 
lished in  1806.  In  this  he  described  “Tenon’s 
capsule.” 


159 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

1725. — Guy’s  Hospital,  London,  established. 

1725-1761. — Pierre  Tarin.  French  physician  and  ana- 
tomist. Published  various  works  on  anatomy, 
and  a translation  of  “ Haller’s  Physiology.”  He 
is  remembered  by  the  “ valves  of  Tarin,”  part 
of  the  ependymal  roof  of  the  fourth  ventricle. 

1725- 1813. — Leopold  Marco  Antonio  Caldani.  Professor 

of  anatomy  at  Bologna,  Venice  and  Padua.  He 
published  an  important  work,  “ leones  anat- 
omicae  ” in  1813,  illustrated  with  copperplates. 

1726  — The  Jervis  Street  Hospital,  Dublin,  established. 

1726- 1787  — Johann  Kempf.  Physician  of  Hesse-Hom- 

burg,  and  propounder  of  the  doctrine  of 
infarctus,  from  which  theory  the  clyster  fashion 
developed,  that  was  carried  to  such  an  excess 
in  the  18th  century. 

1727- 1759.— Johann  Gottfried  Zinn.  Professor  of  medi- 

cine at  Gottingen.  Wrote  several  treatises  on 
anatomy,  including  a description  of  the  human 
eye  published  in  1755.  The  “zonule”  and  the 
tendon  of  origin  of  the  eye  muscles  commemo- 
rate him. 

1728- 1774. — Oliver  Goldsmith.  M.B.,  but  of  what  uni- 

versity is  not  known.  He  is  better  known  as 
a writer  and  as  the  author  of  the  “ Deserted 
Village”  and  “ The  Vicar  of  Wakefield  ” ; was 
the  friend  of  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson.  He  appears 
to  have  made  an  attempt  to  practise  at  Bank- 
side,  Southwark. 

160 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

1728-1793. — John  Hunter.  Surgeon  and  comparative 
anatomist.  Brother  of  William 
Hunter.  Became  surgeon  to  St. 
George’s  Hospital,  London,  1768. 
Surgeon  extraordinary  to  the 
King,  1776,  and  Surgeon-General 
to  the  English  forces,  1790.  First 
to  describe  phlebitis  and  the  mus- 
cular layer  of  the  iris,  also  to  ad- 
vocate ligature  of  large  arteries  in 
their  continuity.  His  great  collec- 
tion forms  the  chief  part  of  the 
Hunterian  Museum  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons,  London.  He  placed 
English  surgery  on  a scientific  basis  and  was 
the  most  original  and  stimulating  teacher  of 
surgery  of  his  time. 

1728-1797. — Simon  Andre  Tissot,  of  Lausanne.  Physician, 
professor  at  Pavia.  Prolific  writer  of  popular 
medical  works  which  were  widely  translated. 

1728-1799. — Joseph  Black.  Physicist  and  chemist,  a 
pupil  of  William  Cullen.  Professor  of  medicine 
and  chemistry  at  the  Universities  of  Glasgow 
and  Edinburgh.  He  established  the  doctrine 
of  latent  heat,  of  fusion  and  of  vaporization, 
and  discovered  carbonic  acid  gas.  He  was 
called  “The  Nestor  of  the  chemistry  of  the 
eighteenth  century.” 

1728-1813. — Charles  White,  of  Manchester.  Surgeon 
and  obstetrician.  De  Quincey  says  of  him 

l ibi 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

“ he  was  the  most  distinguished  surgeon  in 
the  North  of  England.  He  measured  innu- 
merable skulls  illustrating  all  the  races  of  men.” 
He  was  appointed  surgeon  to  the  Manchester 
Infirmary  when  it  was  established  in  1752. 
He  placed  midwifery  on  a rational  and  humane 
basis. 

1729- 1799. — Lazzaro  Spallanzani.  Abbe  and  physiologist. 

Professor  of  logic,  metaphysics  and  Greek  in 
the  Italian  University  of  Reggio,  and  afterwards 
professor  of  natural  history  at  Pavia  and 
Modena.  Pioneer  in  the  physiology  of  digestion 
and  of  morphology  by  the  experimental  method. 

1730- 1785.—  Mile.  Biheron.  Anatomical  modeller,  of  Paris. 

Her  method  is  not  known,  but  her  models 
were  the  wonder  of  all  who  saw  them.  She 
gave  a demonstration  before  the  Academie 
Royale  des  Sciences  on  the  occasion  of  the  visit 
of  King  Gustavus  III  of  Sweden,  and  taught 
anatomy  privately.  Her  collection  was  bought 
for  Catherine  II  of  Russia. 

1730-1805. — Abbe  Felix  Fontana.  Professor  of  philosophy 
in  Pisa.  Director  of  the  Museum  of  Natural 
History  at  Florence  under  the  patronage  of 
the  Grand  Duke  Leopold,  by  whose  orders  he 
prepared  wax  anatomical  models  and  a museum 
of  natural  history.  The  lymphatic  spaces  in 
the  eye  commemorate  his  name. 

ca.  1762. — Antonio  de  Gimbernat.  Professor  at  Barce- 
lona, 1762-1774.  Director  of  the  College  of 


162 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

Surgeons  in  Madrid,  and  surgeon  in  ordinary 
to  the  King.  Published  in  1793  “A  new  method 
for  operations  for  crural  hernia,”  in  which 
he  described  the  ligament  by  which  he  is 
remembered. 

1731-1802.- — Erasmus  Darwin.  Physician,  philosopher 
and  physiologist.  Born  at  Not- 
tingham. Studied  in  Edinburgh. 
Practised  in  Lichfield,  Radbourne 
and  Derby.  According  to  his 
theories,  there  are  two  funda- 
mental substances,  spirit  and 
matter,  and  the  principle  of  life 
is  motion.  He  wrote  “ Loves  of 
the  Plants”  and  “ Zoonomia,” 
which  in  some  degree  fore- 
shadowed the  hypotheses  of  his 
grandson  Charles  Darwin. 

1731- 1810.  — Henry  Cavendish.  Son  of  Lord  Charles 

Cavendish.  Chemist  and  scientist.  Discoverer 
of  the  composition  of  air.  The  inventor  of 
Cavendish’s  eudiometer.  In  1776  he  discovered 
hydrogen.  He  determined  the  composition  of 
water  and  was  one  of  the  earliest  workers 
on  the  subject  of  specific  heat.  He  improved 
the  thermometer. 

1732- 1778.  — Karl  Gottlieb  Wagler.  Anatomist  and  Uni- 

versity Prosector  at  Gottingen  and  Brunswick. 
Described  typhoid  fever  and  its  etiology,  which 
he  attributed  to  contaminated  springs,  in  his 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

classical  work  “ De  morbo  mucoso  liber  singu- 
lar^,” Gottingen,  1765. 

1732  1810. — Jean  Descemet.  Professor  of  physiology  and 
surgery  in  Paris,  where  he  practised.  In 
1758  he  published  an  inaugural  thesis  on  the 
corneal  membrane.  He  shares  with  Demours 
the  honour  of  discovery  of  the  membrane  which 
bears  his  name. 

1733-1804!. — Joseph  Priestley.  Chemist  andscientist.  Ori- 
ginally a Nonconformist  minis- 
ter. While  at  Leeds  he  turned 
his  attention  to  scientific  ret 
searches,  the  results  of  which 
he  published  in  “ Experiments 
and  Observations  on  different 
kinds  of  Air,”  1774.  He  described 
nitric  and  nitrous  oxide  gas, 
ammonia  and  hydrochloric  acid 
gas.  On  August  1,  1774,  he 

discovered  dephlogisticated  air, 
afterwards  called  oxygen  by 
Lavoisier.  He  died  at  Northum- 
berland, America,  1804. 

1733  1816. — Thomas  Denman.  Obstetrician.  He  recom- 
mended artificial  induction  of  premature  labour 
in  cases  of  great  contraction  of  the  pelvis,  and 
observed  the  carrying  of  puerperal  fever  by 
physicians  and  nurses.  He  invented  a special 
forceps  and  was  the  author  of  “ Introduction 
to  the  Practice  of  Midwifery,”  London,  1787. 

164 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

1733- 1817. — Alexander  Monro,  secundus.  Younger  son 

of  Monro,  primus.  Appointed  assistant  pro- 
fessor with  his  father  in  Edinburgh  in  1755 
and  lectured  there  until  1800,  when  his  son 
began  to  assist  him.  Published  various  ana- 
tomical works  and  engaged  in  a controversy 
with  William  Hunter  concerning  the  priority 
of  certain  discoveries  in  the  lymphatic  system. 
He  first  described  the  “foramen  of  Monro” 
in  1764,  having  observed  it  in  a case  of  hydro- 
cephalus. 

1734- 1815. — Friedrich  Anton  Mesmer.  Born  at  Iznang 

in  Switzerland,  educated  in  medicine,  law  and 
theology.  Practised  and  wrote  on  mesmerism 
and  magnetism  as  therapeutic  agencies.  Held 
lucrative  seances  in  Paris,  doing  much  harm 
and  some  little  good  by  drawing  attention  to 
what  afterwards  became  known  as  hypnotism. 

ca.  1734. — William  Giffard.  The  first  to  describe  and 
depict  midwifery  forceps.  Surgeon  and  obstet- 
rician. Author  of  “ Cases  of  Midwifery,”  1734, 
in  which  he  describes  and  depicts  the  forceps 
used  in  England.  He  states  he  employed  his 
“ extractors  ” in  1726. 

1734. — St.  George’s  Hospital,  London,  established. 

1735- 1788. — John  Brown.  Born  at  Dunse,  Scotland. 

Studied  at  Edinburgh.  Physiologist  and 
author  of  “ Elementa  medicinae,’’  1780,  in 
which  he  propounds  a system  of  medicine 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

called  after  him  the  Brunonian  system,  which 
gained  many  adherents. 

1735- 1794.— Gaspar  Friedrich  Wolff.  Professor  of  ana- 

tomy at  Petrograd.  He  published  in  1759  a 
work  on  reproduction,  in  which  he  described 
the  “Wolffian”  duct  of  the  pronephros,  and 
the  mesonephric  body. 

1736- 1801.— Thomas  Fowler.  English  physician.  Kept  an 

apothecary’s  shop  in  York,  1760-1774.  Gradu- 
ated M.D.,  Edinburgh.  Practised  in  Stafford 
and  York.  In  1786  he  published  his  treatise 
on  arsenic  and  originated  the  formula  for 
“Fowler’s  solution”  (liquor  arsenicalis  B.P.). 
1736. — The  Edinburgh  Infirmary  established. 

1736  1819. — William  Hey.  F.R.S.,  senior  surgeon  to  the 
Leeds  Infirmary,  which  he  was  largely  instru- 
mental in  founding  He  lectured  on  anatomy  in 
Leeds,  and  was  a friend  of  Priestley.  Author 
of  various  surgical  observations.  “Hey’s  liga- 
ment ” commemorates  his  name. 

1737- 1798.— Aloysius  Galvani,  of  Bologna.  Physician 

and  physicist.  Professor  of  anatomy  at  Bologna. 
His  researches  concerning  the  contractions  pro- 
duced in  the  muscles  of  frogs  by  contact  with 
metals,  led  to  his  discovery  of  galvanic  or  vol- 
taic electricity.  He  wrote  “ De  viribus  electri- 
citatis  in  motu  musculari  commentarius,”  1791. 

1738- 1814. — Joseph  Ignace  Guillotine.  M.D.  of  Rheims. 

Practised  in  Paris  and  acted  as  one  of  the 
deputies  for  Paris  at  the  beginning  of  the 


166 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

French  Revolution.  The  machine  for  decapi- 
tation which  has  immortalized  his  name  was 
first  used  on  April  25,  1792. 

1739-1774. — William  Hewson.  A pupil  of  the  Hunters, 
and  assistant  to  William  at  Windmill  Street. 
Practised  surgery  and  midwifery  in  London. 
In  1772  gave  lectures  on  anatomy  in  his  own 
house,  and  attained  a very  great  reputation  as  a 
teacher.  He  performed  many  laborious  dissec- 
tions and  injections  on  living  and  dead  animals, 
for  which  he  received  the  Copley  medal  of  the 
Royal  Society. 

1739- 1808. — Heinrich  Auguste  Wrisberg.  Professor  of 

anatomy  at  Gottingen.  He  published  his 
observations  on  Nerves  between  1780  and  1800. 
He  is  remembered  by  the  “ nerve  of  Wrisberg  ” 
and  the  “ pars  intermedia  ” of  the  7th  nerve. 

1740- 1800. — Mathias  Saxtorph.  Professor  of  midwifery 

at  Copenhagen.  He  wrote  the  first  handbook 
on  anatomy  in  the  Danish  language  and  devised 
a midwifery  forceps. 

1740. — The  London  Hospital  established. 

1740-1804. — Thomas  Percival,  M.D. Edinburgh,  F.R.S. 

Practised  first  at  Warrington  and  afterwards 
at  Manchester.  Founder  of  the  Manchester 
Literary  and  Philosophical  Society.  Obtained 
a census  of  Manchester  in  1773,  and  did  much 
to  promote  the  public  health  of  the  town. 
1740-1817. — Johann  Heinrich  Jung  Stilling.  Ophthalm- 
ologist. Professor  at  Marburg  and  of  political 

167 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

economy  at  Heidelberg.  Friend  of  Goethe. 
Author  of  literary  works,  autobiography  and 
the  description  of  an  operation  for  cataract. 
1741-1770. — William  Stark.  He  was  the  earliest  writer 
to  distinguish  between  tuberculosis  and  scrofu- 
losis.  His  work  on  clinical  and  anatomical 
observations,  with  experiments,  dietetical  and 
statical,  was  published  in  1788.  In  “ Medical 
Communications,”  published  in  1785,  his  trea- 
tise on  miliary  tuberculosis,  he  describes  his 
investigations  on  that  subject. 

1741- 1799. — William  Withering.  M.D. Edinburgh.  Prac- 

tised at  Edgbaston,  near  Birmingham.  Intro- 
duced digitalis  into  medicine  in  “ An  Account 
of  the  Foxglove  and  some  of  its  Medical 
Uses,”  1785. 

1742- 1786. — Carl  Wilhelm  Scheele.  Apothecary  and 
chemist.  Born  at  Stralsund, 
Sweden.  Discovered  nitrogen, 
hydrocyanic,  oxalic  and  uric 
acids,  glycerin,  tartaric,  citric, 
lactic,  gallic,  benzoic  and  other 
acids.  He  also  isolated  sugar 
of  milk  and  discovered  the 
method  of  producing  prussian 
blue.  His  name  is  commemo- 
rated in  Scheele’s  green  in  ac- 
knowledgment of  his  work  on 
compounds  of  arsenic.  He  died 
at  Roping  in  1786. 


168 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

-i 7 42-1787- — Maximilian  Stoll.  Epidemiologist  and  clini- 
cal teacher.  Studied  in  Vienna,  and  formulated 
a system  of  medicine.  He  advocated  an  ex- 
tensive use  of  emetics  and  laxatives. 

1743- 1793. — Jean  Paul  Mara  Marat.  Physician  and 

revolutionist.  Born  in  Switzerland.  M.D.  of 
St.  Andrews,  1775  ; practised  in  London.  Took 
an  active  part  in  the  French  revolution  and  was 
assassinated  in  his  bath  by  Charlotte  Corday 
in  1793. 

1743  1794. — Antoine  Laurent  Lavoisier.  French  chemist. 

Studied  at  the  College  Mazarin,  Paris,  and  was 
admitted  to  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  1768. 
Priestley  visited  him  in  Paris  in  1774  and 
explained  his  discovery  of  dephlogisticated 
air.  Lavoisier  repeated  the  experiment  and 
gave  the  name  of  oxygen  to  the  gas.  He  made 
a complete  investigation  of  its  properties.  The 
substitution  of  his  theories  for  those  of  the 
phlogistonists  led  to  a complete  revision  of 
the  language  of  chemistry.  Lavoisier  fell  a 
victim  of  the  French  revolution  and  was  guil- 
lotined in  1794. 

1744- 1815. — John  Coakley  Lettsom.  Quaker  physician. 

Born  in  the  West  Indies,  practised  in  London. 
One  of  the  founders  of  the  Medical  Society  of 
London.  “The  Friend  of  Humanity,  the 
Patron  of  Science.”  The  Ipomoea,  a climbing 
plant,  and  a beautiful  shrub  now  included  in 
Fraziera,  are  both  called  Lettsomia  after  him. 

169 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  Royal  Sea- 
Bathing  Hospital  at  Margate. 

1744- 1829. — Jean  Baptiste  de  Lamarck.  French 

naturalist.  He  was  fifty  years  of  age  before 
he  began  to  study  zoology.  Published  in  1809 
his  “ Philosophie  zoologique,”  and  in  1816  his 
“ Natural  History  of  Invertebrates  ” in  7 vols. 
Introduced  many  reforms  into  the  classification 
of  animals  and  was  the  father  of  the  modern 
evolutionary  doctrine  on  a teleological  basis, 
his  idea  being  that  new  organs  or  new  modifi- 
cations are  formed  in  direct  reaction  to  needs 
experienced  by  a “ sentiment  interieur.”  His 
ideas  took  gradual  root  in  France,  which  was 
relatively  unaffected  by  the  alternative  theory 
of  natural  selection  introduced  by  Darwin. 

1745- 1800. — William  Cumberland  Cruikshank.  Suc- 

ceeded Hewson  in  William  Hunter’s  school  of 
medicine  and  followed  William  as  lecturer. 
After  Hunter’s  death  he  continued  the  school 
in  conjunction  with  Matthew  Baillie.  Attended 
Dr.  Samuel  Johnson  in  his  last  illness  and  was 
termed  by  him  a “ sweet-blooded  man.” 

1745-1813.— Benjamin  Rush.  American  physician  and 
philanthropist.  Professor  of  Chemistry  at 
Philadelphia.  He  was  a member  of  Congress 
in  1776  and  signed  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence. Surgeon-General  to  the  Army. 
Professor  of  the  Institutes  of  Medicine  in  the 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

University  of  Pennsylvania  and  a Founder  of 
the  Pennsylvania  Dispensary  in  1786.  His 
successful  treatment  of  yellow  fever  in  the 
epidemic  of  1793  enhanced  his  reputation. 
Among  his  works  were  “ Medical  Enquiries 
and  Observations  ” and  “A  Treatise  of  Diseases 
of  the  Mind.” 

1745-1818. — Joseph  Barth,  of  Malta.  Anatomist  and 
professor  at  Vienna.  Oculist  to  Joseph  II  and 
the  first  to  give  separate  lectures  on  ophthalmo- 
logy. He  founded  an  ophthalmic  hospital. 

1745- 1827.— Alessandro  Yolta.  Italian  physicist  and 

professor  at  Como  and  Pavia.  His  researches 
in  electricity  led  to  his  invention  of  the  voltaic 
pile  (1800),  the  electrophorus  and  electroscope. 
1745.— Separation  of  Barbers  from  Surgeons  in  England. 
1745. — Middlesex  Hospital  founded. 

1745.— London  Lock  Hospital  founded. 

1746- 1810. — Jean  Louis  Baudelocque,  of  Paris.  Obstet- 

rician who  invented  a type  of  midwifery  forceps 
and  an  external  pelvimeter  based  on  his  views 
about  the  pelvis.  Author  of  “ L’Art  des 
Accouchements,”  Paris,  1781. 

1747- 1832. — Antonio  Scarpa,  of  Motta.  Surgeon  and 

anatomist.  A pupil  of  Morgagni.  Professor 
at  Modena  and  Pavia.  Studied  hernia,  ortho- 
paedics and  ophthalmic  surgery.  His  works 
are  beautifully  illustrated,  being  models  of 
anatomical  accuracy  combined  with  the  per- 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

fection  of  engraving.  His  name  is  now  well 
known  in  connection  with  “Scarpa’s  triangle.” 

1748-1794. — Felix  Yicq  d’Azyr.  French  anatomist. 

Chief  physician  to  Marie  Antoinette.  One  of 
the  founders  and  Perpetual  Secretary  of  the 
Societe  Royale  de  Medecine  Published  a 
treatise  on  anatomy  and  physiology  and  works 
on  veterinary  medicine. 

1748- 1833. — Adamantios  Koraes.  M.D.  of  Montpellier. 

Translator  of  medical  books  and  accumulator 
of  notes  for  an  edition  of  Hippocrates.  The 
great  popular  reformer  of  the  Greek  system 
of  instruction.  He  methodized  the  literary 
language  of  his  countrymen.  Koraes  and 
Capodistrias  (also  a member  of  the  medical 
profession)  were  the  originators  of  modern 
Greek  independence  of  Turkish  rule. 

1749- 1832. — Johann  Wolfgang  Goethe.  Philosopher  and 

poet.  The  first  to  express  definitely  the  idea 
of  the  unity  of  plan  in  comparative  anatomy. 
He  discovered  the  intermaxillary  bone  in  man 
in  1784,  and  explained  differences  in  the  organs 
of  plants  by  variations  in  the  sap  supplied  to 
them,  his  idea  being  that  all  parts  were  equally 
varieties  of  one  abstract  “ plant  part.”  He 
enunciated  the  law  of  balance,  viz.,  that  to 
no  part  can  anything  be  added  without  some- 
thing being  taken  away  from  another  part, 
and  vice  versa.  He  was  thus  the  prophet  of 
nineteenth  century  morphology. 


172 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

1749-1823.— Edward  Jenner.  Born  at  Berkeley,  Glou- 
cestershire. After  serving  his 
apprenticeship  with  a firm  of 
surgeons  in  Sodbury  he  came  to 
London  and  became  a house-pupil 
of  John  Hunter.  He  began  to 
investigate  cowpox,  a disease 
contracted  by  dairymen  from  in- 
fected cows  in  1780.  He  found 
that  the  matter  taken  from  a 
human  being  suffering  from  cow- 
pox  had  the  power  of  protecting 
another  individual  from  smallpox, 
which  he  eventually  confirmed 
after  a series  of  experiments.  In  1796  he 
inoculated  a boy  of  eight  years  with  matter 
taken  from  a pustule  on  the  hand  of  a dairy 
maid  suffering  from  cowpox ; after  an  interval 
he  inoculated  the  boy  with  smallpox  matter  and 
found  that  he  did  not  contract  the  disease.  He 
published  the  result  of  his  experiments  in  1798. 
Jenner’s  great  discovery  of  vaccination  soon 
became  known  and  was  practised  throughout 
the  world  with  successful  results.  He  received 
a grant  of  £ 10,000  from  Parliament  which  was 
followed  by  a further  grant  of  ^20,000  in  1806, 
for  his  discovery.  He  died  at  The  Chantry, 
Berkeley,  the  house  where  he  had  originally 
practised,  in  1823. 

1750-1795. — Francois  Chopart.  French  surgeon.  Called 


I73 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

by  his  mother’s  name,  his  father  being  Frangois 
Turlure.  Graduated  1770.  Author,  with  Desault, 
of  a “ Treatise  on  surgical  maladies.”  He  gave 
his  name  to  an  amputation  of  the  foot. 

1752-1808. — John  Sheldon.  Assistant  to  William  Hunter 
whom  he  succeeded  as  professor  of  anatomy 
to  the  Royal  Academy.  Surgeon  to  the  West- 
minster Hospital.  The  first  Englishman  to 
ascend  in  a balloon  at  Chelsea,  1784.  Gave 
much  attention  to  injections  and  embalming,  and 
completed  Hewson’s  work  on  the  lymphatics. 
A portrait  of  him  in  oils  hangs  in  the  Royal 
Devon  and  Exeter  Hospital  to  which  he  was 
surgeon  for  many  years. 

1752- 1815. — Paolo  Mascagni,  of  Casteletto.  Professor  of 

anatomy  at  Siena,  Pisa  and  Florence.  He 
studied  the  lymphatics,  and  was  author  of  an 
anatomical  atlas  with  life-size  plates,  which 
was  published  posthumously  in  1816. 

1752  1840. — Johann  Friedrich  Blumenbach.  Anthro- 
pologist. Professor  of  anatomy  at  Gotha. 
Physician  to  the  Kings  of  Great  Britain  and 
Holland.  Wrote  on  human  and  comparative 
anatomy  and  on  the  varieties  of  the  human 
race.  He  gave  his  name  to  the  slope  of  the 
basi-occiput  and  sphenoid  inside  the  skull. 

1753- 1811.— John  Christopher  Stark.  Obstetrician.  He 

devised  “ Stark’s  forceps,”  a placental  spoon 
and  instruments  for  Caesarean  section. 


174 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

1754- 1846. — Benjamin  Waterhouse.  Professor  of  Medi- 

cine in  Harvard  College.  Was  the  first  to 
introduce  vaccination  into  the  United  States. 

1755- 1817. — Sir  James  Earle.  Surgeon  to  St.  Bartholo- 

mew’s Hospital  and  inventor  of  the  treatment 
of  hydrocele  by  injection  (1791).  Son-in-law 
of  Percivall  Pott,  whose  works  he  edited  and 
published  in  two  editions  dated  1790  and  1808. 

1755-1826.— Philippe  Pinel.  The  first  to  improve  the 
condition  of  the  insane.  He  placed  them  in 
hospitals  under  the  charge  of  physicians  and 
classified  the  patients  according  to  the  character 
of  their  diseases.  He  urged  the  necessity  of 
their  treatment  by  gentle  means  and  recom- 
mended physical  labour  in  place  of  corporeal 
punishments  and  inhuman  physical  restriction. 
His  work  “Traite  medico-philosophique  sur 
l’alienation  mentale,  ou  la  manie,”  Paris,  1801, 
marked  an  epoch  in  the  study  of  psychiatry. 

1755-1826.  — Joseph  Louis  Proust.  French  chemist. 

Became  a professor  of  chemistry  at  Madrid. 
He  established  the  fact  that  chemical  combina- 
tion occurs  only  in  definite  proportions  by 
weight  and  that  every  chemical  compound  is 
definite  in  its  nature,  the  ratio  between  its 
constituent  elements  being  invariable. 
1755-1830.— Samuel  Thomas  Yon  Soemmering.  Phy- 
sician to  the  King  of  Bavaria.  Professor  of 
anatomy  at  Mayence,  Frankfort  and  Munich. 
Published  various  works  on  anatomy,  particu- 


175 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

larly  on  the  nervous  system  and  the  eye.  He 
believed  that  the  nerves  act  independently  of 
the  brain,  which  he  did  not  consider  necessary 
to  the  continuance  of  life. 

1755- 1843.— Samuel  Christian  Friedrich  Hahnemann. 

Born  at  Meissen.  Educated  at  Erlangen. 
Founded  his  system  of  homoeopathic  medicine 
in  1805,  on  the  principle  that  “ similia  similibus 
curantur,”  and  that  infinitesimally  small  doses  t 
of  drugs  were  effective. 

1756- 1805.— James  Currie,  of  Liverpool.  He  advocated 

affusions  in  acute  disease,  especially  in  typhus, 
and  was  the  first  to  insist  on  the  importance  of 
the  temperature  of  the  patient.  Currie’s  ob- 
servations are  contained  in  his  treatise  on 
“ Medical  Reports  on  the  effects  of  water,  cold 
and  warm,  as  a remedy  in  febrile  diseases,” 
1797.  He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the 
Liverpool  School  of  Medicine  and  published 
an  edition  of  the  poems  of  Burns. 

1757- 1817. — William  Charles  Wells,  M.D.  Born  at 

Charlestown,  South  Carolina.  He  was  edu- 
cated in  Scotland,  practised  in  London  and 
became  physician  to  St.  Thomas’s  Hospital. 
He  determined  experimentally  in  1814  that 
“ Dew  is  the  production  of  a preceding  cold  in 
the  substances  upon  which  it  appears.”  He 
differentiated  between  the  various  causes  of 
dropsy,  and  established  the  fact  that  albumen 
was  present  in  the  urine  of  persons  suffering 

176 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

from  dropsy.  Darwin  in  his  “ Origin  of 
Species”  gives  Wells  the  credit  of  being  the 
first  to  enunciate  the  principle  of  natural 
selection  in  1813. 

4758-1822. — James  Gregory,  of  Aberdeen.  Successor  to 

Cullen  as  professor  of  the  prac- 
tice of  medicine  at  Edinburgh. 
He  advocated  the  doctrines  of 
Cullen,  and  his  name  is  familiar 
from  the  compound  rhubarb  pow- 
derknovvnas  “ Gregory’s  powder  ” 
(pulv.  rhei  co.,  B.P.).  He  wrote 
a conspectus  of  medicine,  1766, 
which  had  a wide  circulation,  and 
he  exerted  much  influence  on  the 
development  of  medicine  in  Great 
Britain.  He  considered  the  mus- 
cles and  nerves  together  a nervous  element 
which  was  excited  by  the  heart. 

1759. — Physick  Garden  at  Kew  opened. 

1759-1813. — Johann  Christian  Reil.  Physician  and  pro- 
fessor of  medicine  at  Halle  and  Berlin.  He 
elaborated  the  doctrine  of  vital  force,  which 
contended  that  each  organ  has  its  own  special 
force,  but  is  united  in  sympathy  with  the  rest 
of  the  body.  Changes  of  composition  are  the 
basis  of  all  the  manifold  phenomena  in  condi- 
tions of  health  and  disease,  and  in  these  lies 
the  proximate  cause  of  disease.  He  founded 
the  first  Journal  of  Physiology  and  the  first 


M 


177 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

Journal  of  Psychiatry.  His  name  is  associated 
with  the  “ island  of  Reil  ” in  the  brain. 

1759- 1816. — Franz  Caspar  Hesselbach.  Surgeon  and 

anatomist.  Pupil  of  Von  Siebold  and  teacher 
of  Langenbeck.  Professor  of  surgery  at  Wurz- 
burg. Published  a manual  of  dissection  and 
a treatise  on  hernia.  Hesselbach’s  triangle 
and  ligament  commemorate  him. 

1760- 1818. — Caspar  Wistar.  Teacher  of  anatomy  at 

Pennsylvania.  His  “ System  of  Anatomy,” 
181 1,  was  the  first  work  on  the  subject  published 
in  the  New  World.  The  “Wistaria”  vine 
was  named  after  him. 

1761- 1823. — Matthew  Baillie.  Physician.  The  father 

of  medical  pathology.  He  published  “The 
Morbid  Anatomy  of  some  of  the  most  Im- 
portant Parts  of  the  Human  Body  ” in  1793, 
illustrated  with  copperplates  by  William  Clift 
(page  187).  He  demonstrated  the  pathological 
anatomy  of  the  brain,  the  heart  and  the  lungs, 
in  which  in  1793  he  was  the  first  to  point  out 
the  grey  miliary  tubercles  of  consumption.  He 
was  a nephew  of  William  and  John  Hunter, 
whose  private  school  he  carried  on. 

1762  1838.— John  Rutley.  Quaker.  Physician  to  the 
Liverpool  Dispensary.  One  of  the  founders  of 
the  Liverpool  Athenaeum  in  1797  and  of  the 
Liverpool  Medical  Institution,  1835.  With 
William  Roscoe  and  Dr.  James  Currie  he  laid 
the  foundations  of  medical  study  in  Liverpool. 


178 


The  Eighteenth  Century 

1763  1820  — John  Bell.  Surgeon  and  anatomist.  Elder 
brother  of  Sir  Charles  Bell.  Pro- 
fessor of  surgery  and  obstetrics 
at  Edinburgh.  Author  of  a “Sys- 
tem of  the  Anatomy  of  the  Human 
Body,”  1793-98,  and  “ Principles 
of  Surgery,”  1801-07.  He  had 
great  artistic  powers,  and  illus- 
trated his  own  works.  He  was 
an  excellent  classical  scholar,  and 
one  of  the  most  skilful  operators 
of  his  day. 

1763- 1832. — Sir  Everard  Home.  Professor  at  the  Royal 

College  of  Surgeons,  brother-in-law  of  John 
Hunter,  who  entrusted  him  with  the  duty  of 
describing  his  collection. 

1764- 1831. — John  Abernethy.  Surgeon  and  anatomist'. 

Professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery 
in  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons. 
Founder  of  the  Medical  School  at 
St.  Bartholomew’s  Hospital.  His 
surgical  teaching  was  based  on 
physiology  rather  than  on  ana- 
tomy. He  was  the  first  to  ligature 
the  external  iliac  artery  for  aneu- 
rysm in  1796,  also  the  common, 
carotid  for  haemorrhage  in  1798, 
and  improved  the  treatment  of 
lumbar  abscesses  by  incision. 


179 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

1766  1822. — Wright  Post.  Surgeon  of  Long  Island,  New 
York.  The  first  American  surgeon  who  suc- 
cessfully tied  the  femoral,  subclavian  and 
common  carotid  arteries. 

1766  1852— Dominique  Jean  Larrey.  “Baron  Larrey.” 
French  military  surgeon  who  served  with 
Napoleon  throughout  his  great  wars.  He  was 
the  first  to  amputate  at  the  hip  joint.  Surgeon- 
in-chief  to  the  “Grande  Armee,”  and  is  said  to 
have  performed  two  hundred  amputations  in 
one.  day.  He  invented  the  “ flying  ambulances.’’ 
He  was  professor  of  medicine  at  the  Ecole 
de  Medecine,  Paris,  and  wrote  “ Memoirs  of 
Military  Medicine,”  1817. 

1766-1814. — John  Dalton.  Meteorologist,  physicist  and 
chemist.  Of  humble  Quaker  origin  in  Cum- 
berland, he  became  a D.C.L.  and  LL.D.,  of 
Oxford  and  Edinburgh  Universities.  He  de- 
veloped the  primary  laws  of  heat  and  chemical 
combination  and  laid  the  foundation  of  chemical 
notation.  He  applied  the  atomic  theory  to 
chemistry.  In  1794  he  gave  to  the  Literar}^ 
and  Philosophical  Society  at  Manchester  the 
first  detailed  discovery  of  colour  blindness 
which  was  afterwards  known  as  “ Daltonism.” 
1766-1811. — Sir  Henry  Halford,  Bt.  F.R.S.,  M.D.Oxon. 

President  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians. 
Physician  to  George  III,  George  IV,  William 
IV  and  Queen  Victoria.  His  name  originally 
was  Henry  Vaughan.  Succeeded  Matthew 


180 


The  N ineteenth  Century 

Baillie  in  the  chief  practice  in  London.  He 
obtained  from  the  Crown  a grant  of  the  site 
of  the  present  college  in  Pall  Mall  East. 

1766. —Cavendish  discovers  hydrogen. 

1768- 1837. — Philip  Syng  Physick.  Pupil.of  John  Hunter. 

Professor  of  surgery  in  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania in  1805.  He  has  been  called  the 
“ Father  of  American  Surgery.”  He  was  the 
inventor  of  a tonsillotome. 

1768  1841. — Sir  Astley  Paston  Cooper.  Anatomist  and 
Surgeon  to  Guy’s  and  St.  Thomas’ 
Hospitals,  Surgeon-in-ordinary  to 
George  IV  and  Queen  Victoria. 
He  counted  the  day  lost  when 
he  did  not  actually  dissect  some 
part  of  the  body  in  his  private 
dissecting  room,  and  often  made 
presents  of  whole  subjects  to  those 
of  his  friends  who  were  unable  to 
obtain  them.  President  of  the 
Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  1827 
and  1836.  He  was  especially  in- 
terested in  the  subjects  of  hernia,  fractures 
and  dislocations. 

1769- 1859. — Friedrich  Heinrich  Alexander  Freiherr  von 

Humboldt.  Traveller,  naturalist  and  diplomat. 
Educated  at  Frankfort  and  Gottingen.  Tra- 
velled extensively  in  South  America  and  in 
Central  Asia. 

181 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

1770- 1853. —James  Macartney.  M.D.  Professor  of 

anatomy  and  chirurgery  in  the  University  of 
Dublin.  He  was  the  first  in  Great  Britain  to 
teach  systematic  comparative  anatomy  to  medi- 
cal students  and  the  first  systematic  lecturer 
on  pathology.  He  was  a pioneer  in  the  teaching 
of  physiological  psychology  and  one  of  the  fore- 
most reformers  in  practical  surgery. 

1771- 1802. — Marie  Francois  Xavier  Bichat  French 

surgeon.  First  studied  at  Nantes, 
and  afterwards  at  Lyons  and 
Montpellier  in  the  department  of 
surgery  under  Petit.  He  removed 
to  Paris  and  gave  private  courses 
in  surgery  and  anatomy.  In  1801 
he  was  appointed  to  the  Hotel 
Dieu.  He  was  a man  of  great 
mental  activity  and  power,  an 
ardent  morbid  anatomist,  and 
died  at  the  early  age  of  31.  His 
chief  works  were  the  “ Traite  des 

Membranes,”  1800,  “ Recherches  physio- 

logiques  sur  la  vie  et  la  mort,”  1800,  and 
“ Anatomie  Generale,”  1801.  He  worked  out 
in  detail  the  distinctions  between  animal  and 
vegetative  functions,  and  was  the  founder  of 
the  study  of  normal  and  pathological  histology. 

1771-1820  — Johann  Christian  Rosenmiiller.  Professor 
of  anatomy  and  surgery  in  Leipzic.  He  pub- 
lished “ Descriptive  anatomy  of  the  lachrymal 


182 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

apparatus”  in  1797,  and  a work  on  the  foetal 
ovary  in  1802,  in  which  he  described  the 
collection  of  embryonic  remnants  known  as  the 
organ  of  Rosenmiiller. 

4771  1830. — Ephraim  McDowell.  American  surgeon,  born 
in  Virginia.  “ The  father  of  ovariotomy.” 
Educated  at  Edinburgh.  Practised  in  Kentucky 
from  1795.  Performed  the  first  ovariotomy  at 
Danville  on  Mrs.  Jane  Todd  Crawford  in 
1809,  but  did  not  publish  it  until  1817,  when 
he  met  with  a storm  of  opposition.  The  opera- 
tion was  not  repeated  in  the  U.S.A.  until  1821. 

1771-1843.— Elisha  North.  A medical  practitioner  of  Con- 
necticut. He  was  a pioneer  in  Jennerian  vacci- 
nation ; established  the  first  Eye  Infirmary  in 
the  U.S.A.  (New  London,  1817),  and  published 
the  first  book  on  “ spotted  lever.”  In  the  course 
of  this  work  he  recommends  the  use  of  the 
clinical  thermometer. 

1771-1844.— Etienne  Geoffroy,  Marquis  de  St.  Hilaire. 

French  morphologist.  Professor  of  zoology  at 
the  Jardin  des  Plantes  in  Paris.  He  endeavoured 
to  found  a science  of  pure  morphology  and  his 
basic  idea  was  that  of  an  abstract  generalized 
type  of  animal  to  which  all  living  beings  could 
be  compared.  He  admitted  the  possibility  of 
one  form  giving  rise  to  different  forms  by 
sudden  transformation,  but  was  not  strictly  an 
evolutionist.  He  insisted  on  the  priority  of 
structure  over  function. 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

1772- 1838  — Frangois  Joseph  Yictor  Broussais.  Born 
at  St.  Malo,  Brittany.  Military 
surgeon  with  the  armies  of 
Napoleon  in  Holland,  Germany, 
Austria  and  Spain.  Propounded 
the  theory  of  “ Physiological 
Medicine,”  and  so  treated  patien  ts 
by  starving  and  leeching  that  he 
and  his  followers  raised  the  import 
of  leeches  in  France  from  two  or 
three  millions  a year  to  forty-one 
millions.  Published  his  “Traite 
de  physiologie  applique  a la  patho- 
logie  ” in  1834. 

1772. — Priestley  discovers  nitrous  oxide. 

1773.  — Medical  Society  of  London  founded. 

1773- 1829. — Thomas  Young.  A Quaker  physician.  The 

discoverer  of  phonetic  hieroglyphics  from  the 
study  of  the  Rosetta  stone.  One  of  the  master 
minds  of  the  nineteenth  century.  He  appears 
to  have  been  equally  at  home  in  the  classics, 
in  physics,  mathematics,  philology,  music, 
biography  and  actuarial  science.  Physician  to 
St.  George’s  Hospital  in  London. 

1773-1831. — Luigi  Rolando.  Professor  of  anatomy  in 
Turin  and  author  of  various  works  on  the 
brain,  giving  his  name  to  several  parts  therein. 
He  likened  the  cerebellum  to  the  voltaic  pile. 

184 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

1773  1841.— Marie  Anne  Yictoire  Gillain  Boiyin.  M.D. 

Marburg  (hon.  causa).  Famous 
obstetrician  of  Paris.  Dupuytren 
said  of  her  : “ Qu’elle  avait  un  ceil 
au  bout  du  doigt.”  Invented  a 
trivalve  expanding  speculum  and 
was  the  first  to  demonstrate  the 
nature  of  the  hydatid  mole.  Author 
of  “ Memorial  de  l'art  des  accou- 
chements”  in  1812 ; “Recherches 
sur  une  des  causes  de  l’avorte- 
ment,”  1828,  and  in  collaboration 
with  Duges,  “ Traite  pratique  des 
maladies  de  l’uterus  et  de  ses 
annexes,”  1833.  Midwife-superintendent  of  the 
Maison  Royale  de  Sante. 

1774. — Priestley  published  his  discovery  of  dephlogisti- 
cated  air  (oxygen),  and  discovers  ammonia 
gas. 

1774-1819. — Robert  Watt.  Physician  and  bibliographer. 

M.D.  Aberdeen.  Practised  at  Paisley  and 
afterwards  at  Glasgow,  where  he  lectured  on 
the  theory  and  practice  of  medicine.  The 
“ Bibliotheca  Britannica  ” began  to  be  published 
in  1819,  and  was  completed  posthumously  in 
1824.  It  was  designed  to  form  a general  index 
of  the  literature  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
ancient  and  modern,  including  such  foreign 
works  as  have  been  translated  into  English  or 
printed  in  the  British  Dominions.  He  also 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

published  “ An  enquiry  into  the  relative  mor- 
tality of  the  principal  diseases  of  children  ” in 
1813.  It  is  an  appendix  to  his  “ Treatise  on 
the  Chincough.” 

1774-1842.  — Sir  Charles  Bell.  Surgeon.  Younger 
brother  of  John  Bell  and  endowed 
with  equal  artistic  power.  Sur- 
geon to  the  Middlesex  Hospital. 
Discovered  that  the  posterior  roots 
of  the  spinal  nerves  presided  over 
sensation  and  the  anterior  over 
motion,  in  1816.  “ Bell’s  palsy” 

as  a synonym  for  facial  paralysis 
commemorates  his  name.  His 
“ Anatomy  of  Expression  ” was 
published  in  1806.  Became  pro- 
fessor of  surgery  at  Edinburgh 
in  1836.  Published  “ A New  Idea 
of  the  Anatomy  of  the  Brain  and  Nervous 
System  ” in  1811. 

1774- 1844. — John  Conrad  Otto.  Graduated  at  Penn- 

sylvania 1796.  He  played  an  active  part  in  the 
cholera  epidemic  of  1833  and  was  the  first  to 
give  an  account  of  haemophilia  in  1803. 

1775- 1843. — Abraham  Colies  Professor  of  anatomy  and 

surgery  in  Dublin.  A masterly  operator. 
Tied  the  subclavian  artery  for  aneurysm — the 
third  time  it  had  been  done  in  the  British  Isles, 
and  was  the  first  to  tie  the  innominate.  He  is 


The  Nineteenth  Centiuy 

remembered  by  “ Codes’  fracture”  at  the 
wrist,  “ Colies’  fascia  ” and  “ Codes’  law.” 

1775- 1849. — William  Clift.  Prosector  to  John  Hunter, 

and  curator  of  his  Museum,  subsequently 
conservator  of  the  Museum  at  the  Royal 
College  of  Surgeons.  After  the  death  of  John 
Hunter  he  lived  on  in  great  poverty  in  the 
empty  Castle  Street  house,  where  he  employed 
himself  by  transcribing  Hunter's  MSS.  To 
this  we  owe  the  preservation  of  much  material. 
1775. — Layoisier  defines  oxygen. 

1776- 1847.— Carl  Friedrich  Burdach.  Professor  of 

anatomy  and  physiology  at  Dorpat,  Konigs- 
berg  and  Breslau.  Published  a treatise  on 
“ The  Structure  and  Life  of  the  Brain  and 
Spinal  Marrow,”  in  1819.  The  “ column  of 
Burdach  ” was  described  in  this  work. 

1776- 1856.— Amedeo  Avogadro.  Italian  chemist  and 

professor  of  mathematical  physics  at  Turin  in 
1820.  He  was  the  first  to  demonstrate  that 
the  molecules  of  many  elements  are  composed 
of  more  than  one  atom. 

1777- 1835.— Guillaume,  Baron  Dupuytren.  French  sur- 

geon and  anatomist.  Professor  of  surgery  in 
Paris.  Chief  surgeon  of  the  Hotel  Dieu.  First 
surgeon  to  Charles  X.  Contributed  to  the 
knowledge  of  morbid  anatomy.  Invented  some 
surgical  instruments  and  improved  many  opera- 
tions. His  name  is  commemorated  in  “ Dupuy- 
tren’s  contraction  ” of  the  palmar  fascia. 

187 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

1777- 1836. — John  Cheyne.  Born  at  Leith;  educated  at 

Edinburgh,  practised  in  Dublin  and  became 
physician-general  to  the  forces  in  Ireland.  He 
described  “Cheyne-Stokes  respiration  ” in  1818- 
He  also  described  acute  hydrocephalus. 

1778- 1829.— Sir  Humphry  Davy.  P.R.S.  Physicist  and 
chemist.  Born  in  Penzance, 
Cornwall,  and  began  life  as  an  ap- 
prentice to  a surgeon  and  apothe- 
cary. His  researches  in  electro- 
chemistry were  carried  on  at  the 
Royal  Institution,  London,  where 
he  became  a lecturer  in  1801  and 
had  Michael  Faraday  as  his  assis- 
tant. He  discovered  the  metallic 
elements  potassium  and  sodium. 
His  investigation  of  gases  led  to- 
his  discovery  of  chlorine,  euchlo 

rine  and  fluorine.  In  1815  he  invented  the 
safety-lamp  for  miners.  He  died  at  Geneva 
and  his  tomb  is  in  the  cemetery  of  that  city. 
1778-1850. — Joseph  Louis  Gay-Lussac.  French  chemist. 

Became  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Ecole  Poly- 
technique, Paris,  and  also  professor  of  physics 
at  the  Jardin  des  Plantes.  The  originator  of 
volumetric  analysis  and  many  improvements 
in  the  manufacture  of  chemicals. 

1778  1856. — John  Collins  Warren.  Surgeon  and  first 
professor  of  anatomy  and  surgery  at  Harvard. 
While  surgeon  of  the  Massachusetts  General 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

Hospital  he  was  the  first  to  administer  ether 
for  the  purpose  of  surgical  anaesthesia  as 
suggested  by  Morton. 

1779-1848. — Jons  Jacob  Berzelius.  Swedish  chemist. 

He  supported  Dalton’s  atomic  theory  and 
inaugurated  the  quantitative  as  distinguished 
from  the  qualitative  era  in  chemistry. 

1779-1851. — Lorenz  Oken.  Morphologist  and  embryo- 
logist. Professor  of  medical  sciences  at  Jena  and 
later  at  Zurich.  He  elaborated  the  idea  of 
parallelism,  and  taught  that  every  animal  in 
its  development  passes  through  the  stages 
representing  the  classes  immediately  below  it. 
He  laid  the  foundations  of  the  vertebral  theory 
of  the  skull. 

1781-1826.  — Rene  Theophile  Hyacinthe  Laennec.  Born 
in  Brittany.  Studied  at  Nantes; 
served  as  military  surgeon  ; pro- 
fessor of  clinical  medicine  at 
Paris.  In  1S06  he  was  appointed 
physician  to  the  Hopital  Beaujon 
andin  1816  becamephysician  to  the 
Hopital  Necker.  He  invented  the 
stethoscope  in  1815,  and  published 
his  classical  treatise  on  auscul- 
tation in  two  volumes  in  1819. 
By  his  discoveries  he  rendered 
important  services  to  medicine. 

1781-1868. — Sir  David  Brewster.  Physicist  who  studied 
optics  and  the  physiology  of  the  eye.  Founder 

189 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

I 

of  the  “ British  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science,”  1831.  Inventor  of  the 
stereoscope. 

1782- 1855.  Frangois  Magendie,  of  Bordeaux.  Professor 

of  general  pathology  in  the  College  de  France 
and  physician  to  the  Hotel  Dieu.  He  founded 
a new  epoch  in  French  medicine  and  introduced 
the  experimental  method  into  pathology  and 
pharmacology. 

1783- 1853. — Louis  Levin  Jacobsen.  Danish  surgeon. 

Invented  the  lithoclast.  He  described  the 
organ  in  the  nose  which  bears  his  name  in 
1811,  and  published  “New  Nervous  Anasto- 
mosis ” in  1819. 

1783  -1858. — Benjamin  Travers.  Serjeant  - surgeon  to 
Queen  Victoria  and  first  pupil  of  Sir  Astley 
Cooper.  He  introduced  the  idea  of  “con- 
stitutional irritation,”  which  he  considered  was 
derived  from  the  nervous  system,  or  rather 
he  considered  the  latter  the  route  of  trans- 
mission of  the  “irritation”  to  the  whole  body. 

1783-1860  — John  Lizars.  Professor  of  surgery  at  the 
University  of  London  and  afterwards  in 
Edinburgh.  A pupil  of  John  Bell.  He  was  a 
distinguished  operator  and  several  times  extir- 
pated the  ovary.  Author  of  “ Observations  on 
extirpation  of  diseased  ovaria,”  1825,  and  a 
“ System  of  anatomical  plates,”  London,  1822- 
1826. 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

1783  1862. — Sir  Benjamin  Collins  Brodie.  Surgeon, 
Anatomist  and  physiologist.  President  of  the 
Royal  Society  ; Surgeon  to  St.  George’s  Hos- 
pital. Author  of  “ Pathological  and  surgical 
observations  on  diseases  of  the  joints,”  1818. 

1784- 1845.— Gilbert  Breschet.  French  physician.  Pro- 

fessor of  anatomy  at  Paris.  Published  1827- 
1830  “Anatomical,  pathological  and  physio- 
logical investigations  on  the  venous  system.” 
The  chief  venous  sinus  accompanying  the 
middle  meningeal  artery  bears  his  name. 

1785- 1852. — Daniel  Drake.  Well  known  for  his  work  on 

the  topography  of  disease.  He  published  many 
papers  on  professional  subjects,  his  chief  work 
being  “ Diseases  of  the  Interior  Valley  of  North 
America”  (1850-1854)  and  an  encyclopaedia  on 
the  Mississippi  Valley.  He  was  the  founder  of 
sound  medical  education  in  Cincinnati. 

1785-1853. — William  Beaumont.  Surgeon  in  the  U.S. 

Army.  The  first  to  study  digestion  and 
movements  of  the  stomach  in  situ,  publishing 
in  1833  his  famous  “ Experiments  and  Obser- 
vations ” on  a case  of  accidental  gastric  fistula, 
which  foreshadowed  the  work  of  Pavloff.  His 
experiments  form  the  foundation  of  modern 
dietetic  tables  and  scales. 

1785-1856. — George  James  Guthrie.  Military  surgeon. 

Surgeon  to  the  Westminster  Hospital,  London. 
He  accompanied  Wellington  on  many  of  his 


191 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

campaigns.  Author  of  “ A treatise  on  gunshot 
wounds.” 

1787-1869. — Jan  Evangel  Purkinje.  Professor  of  patho- 
logy and  physiology  at  Prague  and  Breslau. 
He  made  some  important  discoveries  in  physi- 
ology. Published  in  1838  “A  Description  of 
the  Central  Nervous  System.”  The  cells  of  Pur- 
kinje m the  cerebellum  commemorate  his  name. 

1787- 1872.— Pierre  Charles  Alexandre  Louis.  He  was 

the  first  to  apply  the  “numerical  method  ” to 
pathology  and  was  opposed  to  Broussais’  theo- 
ries. He  was  appointed  physician  to  the 
Hopital  de  la  Pitie,  1835,  and  published  his 
work,  “ Recherches  anatomiques,  pathologiques 
et  therapeutiques : sur  la  phthisie,”  in  1825, 
which  was  founded  upon  358  dissections  and 
i960  cases  of  phthisis.  It  was  translated  into 
German  and  twice  into  English. 

1788- 1833.— Johann  Friedrich  Meckel.  Professor  of 

surgery  and  anatomy  at  Halle.  Grandson  of 
Meckel  the  anatomist  [1714-1774] , after  whom 
the  ganglion  is  named.  Published  contributions 
to  comparative  anatomy  and  devoted  much 
time  to  a detailed  proof  of  the  parallelism 
between  the  embryonic  states  of  higher  animals 
and  the  permanent  states  of  lower  animals, 
hinting  that  the  development  of  the  individual 
is  the  repetition  of  the  history  of  the  race.  He 
founded  modern  zootomy  and  teratology  in 
Germany  and  was  called  “ the  German  Cuvier.” 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

His  name  is  associated  with  “ Meckel’s  carti- 
lage.” 

1789-1832. — George  Christian  Leopold  Dagobert,  Baron 
Cuvier.  One  of  the  greatest  comparative 
anatomists.  Professor  of  natural  history  in 
the  College  de  France.  He  was  the  foremost 
champion  of  the  fixity  of  species  and  the 
superiority  of  function  over  form,  and  the 
opponent  of  St.  Hilaire.  Published  in  1800 
“ Lecons  d’anatomie  comparee,”  and  in  1817 
“ Le  regne  animal.”  The  corner-stone  of  his 
work  is  the  principle  of  correlation,  namely 
that  each  part  depends  in  form  and  function  on 
every  other  part. 

1789-1858. — Richard  Bright,  M.D. Edinburgh.  Clinical 
physician.  Born  at  Bristol,  edu- 
cated at  Edinburgh.  Physician 
to  Guy’s  Hospital  in  London  and 
to  the  London  Fever  Hospital. 
His  name  is  associated  with  those 
morbid  conditions  of  the  kidney 
known  as  “Bright’s  Disease.” 
His  “ Reports  of  Medical  Cases  ” 
published  in  1827,  which  contained 
his  description  of  essential  neph- 
ritis and  distinguishing  between 
cardiac  and  renal  dropsy,  estab- 
lished his  reputation  throughout 
the  world.  He  reformed  the  knowledge  of 
renal  pathology. 


N 


193 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

1790-1834. — Gustav  Gaertner.  Danish  embryologist  and 
practitioner.  He  described  the  duct  in  the 
sow,  which  bears  his  name,  in  1822.  He  named 
it  “ the  Malpighian  duct  ” as  Malpighi  had 
described  it  in  the  calf  in  1681. 

1790-1847.— Thomas  Lisfranc.  Chief  surgeon  of  the 
Hopital  de  Pitie,  Paris.  Author  of  anatomical 
works.  He  is  remembered  in  eponymy  by 
the  scalene  tubercle  of  the  first  rib  and  the 
amputation  at  the  tarso-metatarsal  joint. 

1790  1856.  — August  Wilhelm  Edward  Theodore 
Henschel.  Medical  historian.  Professor  of 
medicine  at  Breslau.  He  was  editor  of  the 
original  series  of  Janus  (1846-1851),  the  first 
journal  devoted  to  the  history  of  medicine. 
1790-1857. — Marshall  Hall.  M.D.  Edinburgh.  Practised 
in  Nottingham  1817  to  1826,  and  afterwards  in 
London.  Engaged  in  research  on  the  capillary 
circulation,  in  the  course  of  which  he  was  led 
to  picture  for  the  first  time  the  reflex  arc  and 
the  action  of  the  spinal  cord  in  the  production 
of  tonus.  He  was  the  first  to  realize  that  the 
spinal  cord  is  not  a cable  of  nerves,  but  an  active 
workshop  teeming  with  intricate  mechanisms. 

1790-1883. — Jules  German  Cloquet.  Professor  of  clinical 
surgery  in  Paris.  He  is  remembered  by  the 
canal  and  gland  of  Cloquet,  and  a textbook  of 
anatomy  in  5 volumes  illustrated  with  fine 
plates.  Published  works  on  hernia  and  other 
surgical  subjects.  Not  to  be  confused  with 


194 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

Hippolyte  Cloquet,  rhinologist,  1787-1840,  who 
was  professor  of  anatomy  in  Paris,  and  author 
of  “ Traite  d’anatomie  descriptive,”  which  was 
published  in  1816.  It  ran  through  six  editions 
and  was  translated  into  English. 

1791. — The  first  Veterinary  School  founded  in  England 
at  the  London  Veterinary  College. 

1791-1867.— Michael  Faraday.  Began  the  study  of 
science  as  assistant  to  Davy  at 
the  Royal  Institution.  In  1824 
he  commenced  the  electrical  re- 
searches which  made  him  famous. 
He  discovered  electro-magnetic 
induction  and  so  rendered  possible 
the  invention  of  the  induction 
coil.  In  1845  he  discovered  the 
influence  of  a magnetic  field  of 
force  on  polarized  light,  and  made 
many  other  important  discoveries 
in  electricity  and  magnetism. 

1791-1868. — John  Elliotson.  M.D. Cantab.  Professor 
of  medicine  ac  the  University  of  London, 
physician  to  University  College  Hospital,  and 
President  of  the  Royal  Medical  and  Chirurgical 
Society.  First  to  employ  hypnotism  in  surgical 
operations. 

1793-1873. — Thomas  Turner.  Surgeon  and  founder  of 

the  first  provincial  medical  school  in  England. 
He  opened  the  Pine  Street  School,  Manchester, 
in  1824. 


195 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

1793-1853.  — William  Edmund  Horner.  American 
anatomist.  Professor  at  Philadelphia,  where 
he  founded  a museum,  which  became  in  his 
hands  one  of  the  richest  in  the  world.  He 
described  the  muscle  which  bears  his  name,  in 
London  in  1822.  He  was  author  of  a work  on 
practical  anatomy. 

1793-1860. — Martin  Heinrich  Rathke.  Comparative 
embryologist.  Professor  of  pathology  and 
physiology  at  Dorpat  and  of  anatomy  and 
zoology  at  Konigsberg.  Published  many  classi- 
cal papers  on  the  development  of  vertebrates 
and  homologies  of  the  gill  arches  and  the 
skeleton.  “ Rathke’s  pouch  ” commemorates 
him  in  human  embryology. 

1793  - 1860.  — Thomas  Addison.  Clinical  physician. 

Educated  at  Newcastle-on-Tyne  and  Edin- 
burgh. Physician  to  Guy’s  Hospital.  His 
name  is  associated  with  “ Addison’s  disease  ” of 
the  suprarenal  capsules  of  which  he  first  gave  an 
account  in  1849,  and  published  more  in  detail 
in  1855. 

1793-1876. — Karl  Ernst  von  Baer  (Bar).  Professor  of 
Zoology  at  Konigsberg.  Founder  of  embryo- 
logy. He  described  the  development  of  many 
vertebrate  types  with  great  minuteness  and 
accuracy  and  discovered  the  mammalian  ovum. 
He  enunciated  the  law  that  development  is  a 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

process  of  differentiation  by  which  the  germ 
becomes  more  and  more  individualized  from  the 
general  to  the  special.  He  also  described  the 
formation  of  the  germ  layers. 

1794-1830.— John  D.  Godman.  American  anatomist 
and  professor  of  surgery.  He  was  editor  of  the 
first  medical  journal  to  be  printed  west  of  the 
Alleghanies,  and  author  of  “ Contributions  to 
Physiological  and  Pathological  Anatomy,” 
1825,  “ American  Natural  History,”  1826, 

and  a treatise  on  the  fascia. 

1794-1847. — Robert  Liston.  Surgeon.  The  most  brilliant 
surgical  operator  of  his  generation 
in  England.  The  first  to  employ 
ether  as  an  anaesthetic,  in  amputa- 
tion of  the  thigh,  at  University 
College  Hospital,  December  21, 
1846.  He  distinguished  himself 
by  his  dissections,  particularly  of 
the  elbow-joint.  Author  of  “ A 
Treatise  on  Practical  and  Opera- 
tive Surgery,”  1837.  He  is 
known  for  his  method  of  flap- 
amputation,  and  in  1836  he  excised 
the  upper  jaw. 

1794  1866. — Benjamin  Guy  Babington.  Physician  to 
Guy’s  Hospital.  He  studied  diseases  of  the 
throat  and  larynx  and  invented  a type  of 
laryngoscope  in  1828. 


197 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

1794  1866. — Sir  Charles  Hastings.  Physician  to  the 
Worcester  Infirmary.  Investi- 
gated the  subject  of  inflammation, 
and  published  a treatise  on  the 
subject  in  1820.  Founded  the 
British  Medical  Association  under 
the  title  of  the  “ Provincial  Medi- 
cal and  Surgical  Association  ” in 
1832.  The  first  meeting  was  held 
in  Worcester  Infirmary  in  July, 
1832,  under  the  presidency  of  Dr. 
John  Johnstone.  In  18-.6  the 
Society  was  enlarged  and  called 
the  Britisli  Medical  Association. 
The  British  Medical  Journal  was  founded  in 
!857- 

1795-1858. — Friedrich  Schlemm.  Professor  of  anatomy 
and  surgery  at  Berlin.  Author  of  a work  on  the 
eye  which  was  published  in  1828-1830.  The 
“ canal  of  Schlemm  ” commemorates  his  name. 

1795-1860.— James  Braid.  Surgeon  of  Fifeshire.  Pioneer 
in  scientific  hypnosis.  Author  of  “Neurypno- 
logy,  or  the  Rationale  of  Nervous  sleep,”  1843, 
in  which  he  holds  that  mesmeric  influence  is 
entirely  subjective  and  personal. 

1795-1862. — Thomas  Wakley.  Medical  journalist.  A 
great  friend  of  Cobbett.  He  founded  the 
Lancet,  1823,  and  was  Member  of  Parliament 
for  Finsbury,  1835.  In  1846  he  introduced  a 
Bill  for  Registration  which  led  to  the  Medical 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

Act  of  1858.  In  1851  he  drew  attention  to  the 
adulteration  of  food,  the  result  being  the 
Adulteration  Act,  i860.  His  action,  whilst 
Coroner  for  West  Middlesex,  led  to  the  aboli- 
tion of  flogging  in  the  Army. 

1795- 1873. — Moritz  Heinrich  Romberg.  Neurologist. 

Professor  of  special  pathology  and  therapy 
at  Berlin.  His  name  is  associated  with 
“ Romberg’s  sign.” 

1796- 1860. — Anders  Olof  Retzius.  Swedish  naturalist 

and  physician.  Professor  of  anatomy  at  Lund 
and  at  a veterinary  school  at  Stockholm.  He 
published  a description  of  the  pelvo-prostatic 
ligaments  in  1849,  and  other  anatomical  works. 
He  is  commemorated  anatomically  by  “ the 
cave  of  Retzius.” 

1798-1861. — Francis  Adams.  General  practitioner,  of 
Banchory  in  Scotland.  He  found  time  in  the 
midst  of  a busy  and  widely  scattered  country 
practice  to  translate  “ Paulus  Aegineta  ” in 
1834  and  the  works  of  Hippocrates  in  1849,  as 
well  as  to  write  accounts  of  the  Greek,  Latin 
and  Arabic  medical  authors  for  Barker’s  edition 
of  “ Lempriere’s  Dictionary.” 

1797- 1824.  — Edward  Grainger.  Anatomist.  Taught 

anatomy  in  London,  and  established  a private 
medical  school  which  was  carried  on  after  his 
death  by  his  brother  Richard.  Wrote  “ The 
Elements  of  General  Anatomy,”  which  was  the 


199 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

first  special  work  on  the  anatomy  of  the  tissues 
in  English  form. 

1797-1838.— Antoine  Louis  Duges.  Morphologist.  Pro- 
fessor of  pathology  and  operative  medicine  at 
Montpellier.  Wrote  a manual  of  obstetrics 
and  a treatise  of  comparative  physiology.  His 
most  important  conception  was  that  the  living 
organism  was  a colony  of  lesser  units,  in  them- 
selves real  organisms.  This  theory  has  since 
often  been  revived. 

1797-1853.  Robert  James  Graves.  Irish  physician, 

professor  of  the  Institutes  of 
Medicine  in  the  King’s  and 
Queen’s  College,  of  Dublin.  Au- 
thor of  “ A System  of  Clinical 
Medicine,”  1843,  and  “Clinical 
Lectures,”  1848.  His  name  is 
associated  with  “ Graves’  disease,” 
exophthalmic  goitre.  He  gave 
early  descriptions  of  angioneurotic 
oedema  and  scleroderma.  He 
requested  that  the  words  “ He 
fed  fevers  ” should  be  his  epitaph. 

1797-1858. — Emile  Huschke.  Professor  at  Jena  and  a 
pupil  of  Oken.  Published  a work  on  splanch- 
nology in  1845  and  on  the  cranium  and  its 
contents  in  men  and  animals  in  1854.  In  the 
latter  he  described  the  foramen,  produced  by  a 


200 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

failure  of  ossification  in  the  tympanum,  which 
bears  his  name. 

1797-1859 — William  Fetherstone  Montgomery.  Irish 

surgeon.  Published  a description  of  the  folli- 
cles at  the  areola  of  the  nipple  which  bear 
his  name,  in  1837. 

1797-1866. — Thomas  Hodgkin.  Morbid  anatomist.  Born 
near  London,  educated  at  Edinburgh.  Was 

Curator  of  the  Museum  at  Guy’s  Hospital.  He 
described  in  1832  the  morbid  condition  of  the 
spleen  and  lymphatic  glands  to  which  in  1865 
Samuel  Wilks  gave  the  name  of  “ Hodgkin’s 
Disease.” 

1797-1882. — Sir  Robert  Christison.  Professor  of  forensic 
medicine  and  materia  medica  in  the  Edinburgh 
University.  Pharmacologist  and  toxicologist. 
He  did  much  to  establish  toxicology  on  a firm 
scientific  basis. 

1797-1891. — Jean  Baptiste  Bouillaud.  Professor  and 
chief  physician  to  the  Charite,  Paris.  He 
contributed  to  the  knowledge  of  diseases  of  the 
heart  and  their  connection  with  rheumatism 
and  also  drew  attention  to  the  great  value  of 
physical  diagnosis.  His  chief  works  were 
“ Traite  clinique  de  rheumatisme  articulaire  ” 
and  “ Traite  clinique  des  maladies  du  coeur.” 

1800. — Sir  Humphry  Dayy  discovered  the  anaesthetic 
properties  of  nitrous  oxide  gas. 

1800-1829. — Henry  Hill  Hickman.  Surgeon  and  general 
practitioner  of  Ludlow.  He  carried  out  a series 


201 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

of  experiments  with  anaesthetics  on  animals  by 
administering  carbonic  dioxide  and  nitrous 
oxide  gases.  He  amputated  their  legs  while 
under  the  anaesthetics,  but  was  unable  to  carry 
out  his  experiments  on  human  subjects  in 
England.  In  1828  he  went  to  Paris  and  laid 
his  results,  by  which  he  claimed  to  render 
patients  insensible  to  pain  when  under  surgical 
operations,  before  the  Academie  de  Medecine. 
He  was  one  of  the  earliest  pioneers  in  the 
discovery  of  a method  of  producing  anaesthesia 
by  inhalation  of  nitrous  oxide  gas  for  the  pur- 
pose of  surgical  operation. 

1800-1872. — Salvatore  de  Kenyia.  Professor  of  the 
history  of  medicine  at  Naples  in  i860.  He 
published  two  valuable  works,  Collectio 
Saliternitana,”  and  “ Storia  della  medicine 
Italiana,”  each  in  five  volumes. 

1800-1884. — Jean  Baptiste  Andre  Dumas.  French 
chemist  and  author  of  “ Traite  du  Chimie 
applique  aux  Arts.”  He  established  the 
theory  of  substitution  in  chemistry  and  in- 
vestigated the  composition  of  carbon-dioxide. 
He  succeeded  Gay  Lussac  as  professor  at  the 
Sorbonne  in  1832,  and  finally  became  professor 
of  chemistry  at  the  Ecole  de  Me'decine  in  1839. 
He  was  the  first  chemist  in  France  to  adopt 
the  system  of  practical  instruction  in  the 
laboratories,  and  added  much  to  our  knowledge 
of  organic  chemistry. 


202 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

1800-1885.— Henri  Milne  Edwards.  French  naturalist, 
Professor  of  entomology,  zoology  and  com- 
parative physiology  in  Paris.  Successor  to 
St.  Hilaire.  Disciple  of  Cuvier.  Interpreted 
form  on  the  principle  that  it  is  rational  and 
purposive,  and  rejected  Darwinism  while  ad- 
mitting the  gradation  of  species  from  lower  to 
higher  forms  by  the  intervention  of  a super- 
natural power.  Published  “ Introduction  a la 
zoologie  generate,”  1851. 

1800-1887. — Richard  Quain.  Surgeon  and  anatomist. 

Surgeon-extraordinary  to  Queen  Victoria,  and 
with  William  Sharpey  edited  the  5th  edition  of 
Jones  Quain’s  “ Human  Anatomy.” 

1800- 1890. — Sir  Edwin  Chadwick.  The  father  of  modern 

sanitary  science  in  England.  He  focused 
public  attention  on  the  broad  facts  and  conse- 
quences of  public  neglect,  and  endeavoured  to 
bring  the  public  health  under  the  protection 
of  the  law. 

1801- 1858. — Johannes  Muller.  Professor  of  anatomy 

and  physiology,  Berlin.  The  son  of  a shoe- 
maker at  Coblenz.  He  inspired  an  entire 
school  of  original  workers.  Schwann,  Henle, 
Briicke,  du  Bois  Reymond,  Remak,  Virchow 
and  Helmholtz  acknowledged  his  influence, 
and  all  endeavoured  to  solve  the  problems  of 
physiology  by  the  methods  of  chemistry  and 
physics.  He  wrote  a masterly  textbook,  “ The 


203 


The  Nineteenth  Ceutury 

Outlines  of  Physiology  ” and  his  name  is  re- 
membered in  the  “ Mullerian  ducts.” 

1801-1867. — Armand  Trousseau,  of  Tours.  Professor 
in  the  Faculte  de  Medecine  in  Paris  and  physi- 
cian to  the  Hotel  Dieu.  He  was  a pioneer  in 
thoracentesis.  He  made  a speciality  of  croup 
and  the  employment  of  tracheotomy  in  that 
disease.  His  “ Traite  de  therapeutique  et  de 
matieres  medicales,”  par  Trousseau  et  Pidoux, 
ran  through  eight  editions  in  France  and  was 
translated  into  English,  Spanish  and  Italian. 

1801- 1881. — Maxmilien  Paul  Emile  Littre.  Lexico- 

grapher and  medical  historian.  Author  of  the 
great  dictionary  of  the  French  language  and  of 
the  best  editions  of  the  works  of  Hippocrates 
and  of  Pliny.  He  is  not  to  be  confused  with 
Alexis  Littre  (1698-1726),  whose  name  is  com- 
memorated in  “ Littre’s  hernia  ” and  “glands.” 

1802- 1845. — John  Houston.  Irish  surgeon.  Curator  of 

the  Dublin  College  of  Surgeons  Museum  of 
which  he  published  an  accurate  and  graphic 
catalogue.  Surgeon  to  the  City  of  Dublin 
Hospital  and  lecturer  on  surgery.  Author  of  a 
book  on  dropsy,  and  various  other  works.  The 
“valves  of  Houston”  in  the  rectum  were 
described  by  him. 

1802-1880. — Sir  Dominic  Corrigan.  Irish  physician  who 
practised  in  Dublin.  He  wrote  on  diseases  of 


204 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

the  heart ; described  aortic  insufficiency  and 
gave  his  name  to  “ Corrigan’s  pulse.” 

1802- 1880. — William  Sharpey.  M.D.  of  Edinburgh. 

Professor  of  anatomy  and  physiology  at 
University  College,  London.  One  of  the 
founders  of  modern  physiology  in  England. 
Amongst  his  pupils  were  Michael  Foster  and 
Burdon  Sanderson. 

1803- 1873. — Justus  von  Liebig.  German  chemist  and 

professor  of  chemistry  at  Giessen,  1824. 
Founder  of  agricultural  chemistry  and  pioneer 
in  physiological  chemistry.  He  discovered  hi p- 
puric  acid  and  chloral  and  did  important  work 
on  fats,  blood  and  meat  juice.  He  perfected  the 
method  of  analysing  organic  compounds  and 
discovered  chloroform  and  many  cyanides.  He 
also  established  the  formula  of  uric  acid  and 
the  nature  of  aldehyde.  His  investigations 
concerning  the  operations  of  agriculture,  the 
processes  of  digestion,  and  the  source  of  animal 
heat,  have  proved  of  great  service  to  mankind. 
In  his  work  on  organic  chemistry  in  its  applica- 
tion to  physiology  and  pathology,  published  in 
1842,  he  first  introduced  the  word  metabolism. 
His  theory  of  fermentation  was  demolished  by 
Pasteur. 

1804- 1873. — Peter  Charles  Huguier.  Professor  of  ana- 

tomy at  the  Ecole  des  Beaux  Arts,  Paris.  He 
annotated  and  enlarged  the  work  of  Bichat. 


205 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

He  finally  applied  himself  to  gynaecology.  The 
canal  through  which  the  chorda  tympani 
emerges  from  the  skull  bears  his  name. 

4804-1876. — Georg  Friedrich  Louis  Stromeyer.  Ortho- 
paedic surgeon.  Surgeon-general  of  the 
Hanoverian  Army,  1854.  Was  present  at  the 
battle  of  Sedan,  1870.  One  of  the  founders 
of  the  modern  school  of  orthopaedic  surgery. 

1804-1878. — John  Hilton.  Surgeon  to  Guy’s  Hospital. 

President  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of 
England.  Surgeon  to  Queen  Victoria.  Was 
influenced  by  the  discoveries  of  Bell  and 
Marshall  Hall.  The  great  exponent,  in  his 
work  on  “ Rest  and  Pain,”  of  treatment  by 
physiological  rest.  He  laid  much  stress  on  the 
necessity  of  combining  a knowledge  of  the 
anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  nerves  with 
surgical  treatment. 

1804-1878. — Sir  William  Stokes.  Regius  professor  of 
medicine  in  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  one 
of  the  great  ornaments  of  the  Irish  medical 
school.  His  name  is  associated  with  an  ex- 
planation in  1848  of  the  respiratory  cycle 
observed  by  John  Cheyne,  and  with  the  Stokes- 
Adams  syndrome.  He  published  four  cases 
of  heart  block  in  1846,  but  it  had  already  been 
observed  by  Thomas  Spens  of  Edinburgh, 
1763-1842. 

1804-1881. — Matthias  Jakob  Schleiden.  Professor  of 
botany  at  Jena,  Dresden  and  Dorpat  ; an 


206 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

exponent  of  the  cellular  structure  of  plants. 
Was  one  of  the  first  to  use  the  microscope  in 
examining  plants. 

1804- 1892. — Sir  Richard  Owen.  Comparative  anatomist. 

Born  at  Lancaster ; studied  in  Edinburgh. 
Was  conservator  of  the  Hunterian  collection 
at  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  of  England, 
and  was  afterwards  superintendent  of  the 
Natural  History  Department  of  the  British 
Museum.  He  is  best  remembered  by  his 
vertebral  theory  of  the  skull  which  was  demo- 
lished by  Parker  and  Huxley. 

1805- 1884. — Samuel  David  Gross.  Professor  of  surgery 

at  Louisville  and  Philadelphia.  Author  of 
the  first  exhaustive  treatise  on  pathological 
anatomy  in  English,  1839.  He  also  published 
a work  on  the  diseases  of  the  genito-urinary 
organs,  1851  ; the  first  systematic  treatise  on 
foreign  bodies  in  the  air-passages,  1854,  and  a 
system  of  surgery,  1859.  He  invented  several 
instruments  and  wrote  many  historical  and 
biographical  papers. 

1806- 1865. — Joseph  Frangois  Malgaigne.  French  sur- 

geon. He  published  a treatise  on  surgical 
anatomy  and  experimental  surgery  in  two 
volumes  in  1838.  He  is  remembered  by 
“ Malgaigne’s  hooks,”  which  were  used  in  the 
treatment  of  fractured  patellae.  He  published 
an  edition  of  Ambroise  Pare’s  works  in  1840. 


207 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

1806  1875. — Guillaume  Benjamin  Amand  Duchenne,  of 
Boulogne.  One  of  the  founders  of  modern 
neurology.  He  described  bulbar  paralysis  in 
i860,  and  his  name  is  commemorated  in  medi- 
cine in  connection  with  “ Duchenne’s  palsy.” 
1807-1873. — Auguste  Nelaton.  Professor  of  surgery, 
Paris.  Surgeon  to  Napoleon  III.  Wrote  be- 
sides other  works  “ Elements  of  Pathological 
Surgery,”  in  five  volumes.  He  is  remembered  in 
surgery  by  “ Nelaton’s  line  ” and  “sphincter” 
and  by  a bullet  probe  he  invented. 

1807- 1878. — Antoine  Pierre  Ernest  Bazin.  French  phy- 

sician. Professor  of  dermatology  and  physi- 
cian to  the  Hospital  of  St.  Louis.  “ Bazin’s 
disease  ” commemorates  his  name. 

1808  1875. — Joachim  Albin  Cardozo  Cazado  Giraldes. 

Born  at  Oporto.  Professor  of  anatomy  in  Paris. 
Published  studies  in  anatomy,  and  described 
the  organ  which  bears  his  name  in  1859. 

1808- 1877. — Sir  William  Fergusson.  Serjeant-surgeon 

to  Queen  Victoria.  Author  of  “ System  of 
Practical  Surgery,”  1842.  Was  one  of  the 
first  surgeons  to  remove  the  upper  jaw. 

1809- 1872. — William  Wood  Gerhard.  American  phy- 

sician. Differentiated  between  typhus  and 
typhoid  fevers,  the  distinction  was  finally 
made  in  England  by  Sir  W.  Jenner,  1849-50. 
1809-1882.— Charles  Robert  Darwin.  Pioneer  in  the 
study  of  general  biology.  Although  the  idea 

208 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

of  evolution  was  known  to  the  Greeks,  he 
established  the  theory  and  devoted  the  greater 
part  of  his  life  to  his  great  work  on  the  “ Origin 
of  Species  by  means  of  Natural  Selection,”  1859. 
This  work  and  “ The  Descent  of  Man,”  pub- 
lished in  1871,  gave  him  a place  among  the 
great  thinkers  of  his  century. 

1809-1884. — Sir  William  James  Erasmus  Wilson. 

Dermatologist  and  founder  of  the  Chair  of 
Dermatology  at  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons, 
also  founder  of  the  Chair  of  Pathology  at  the 
University  of  Aberdeen.  Wrote  several  works 
on  diseases  of  the  skin.  Was  instrumental  in 
bringing  Cleopatra’s  Needle  from  Egypt  to 
London,  and  had  it  erected  on  the  Thames 
Embankment. 

1809-1894. — Oliver  Wendell  Holmes.  — Anatomist  and 
author.  Professor  of  anatomy  at  Harvard. 
He  is  best  known  for  his  poems  and  charming 
writings.  In  1843  he  wrote  a paper  on 
the  Contagiousness  of  Puerperal  Fever,  which 
attracted  much  attention  in  the  United  States. 
He  introduced  the  terms  “anaesthesia”  and 
“ anaesthetic.” 

1809-1896. — Friedrich  Gustay  Jacob  Henle.  Anatomist 
and  histologist.  Pupil  of  Johannes  Muller. 
Professor  of  anatomy  at  Zurich,  Heidelberg 
and  Gottingen.  His  name  is  commemorated 


o 


209 


The  Nineteenth  Century 


in  several  anatomical  structures,  as  in  “Henle’s 
loop  ” in  the  renal  tubules,  and  “ Henle’s  layer  ” 
in  the  hair  sheath. 

1810-1859. — Jacob  Bell.  Pharmacist  of  London.  Founder 
of  the  Pharmaceutical  Society  of  Great  Britain, 
1841,  which  was  incorporated  by  Royal  Charter 
in  1843. 

1810-1882. — Theodore  Schwann.  Professor  of  anatomy 
at  Louvain.  The  founder  of  the  cell  theory.  A 
brilliant  cytologist.  Did  fundamental  work  on 
the  form  and  physiology  of  the  cell  and  of  bile. 
He  compared  plant  and  animal  cells  and 
described  the  origin  of  tissues  from  cells. 
Applied  the  microscope  to  the  elucidation  of  the 
structure  of  animal  tissues  and  showed  that  yeast 
fermentation  was  due  to  a vegetable  germ  which 
fed  itself  on  sugar  and  formed  alcohol. 

1810-1892. — Jean  Louis  Armand  Quatrefages  de  Breau. 

Professor  of  anatomy  and  ethnology  at  the 
Natural  History  Museum,  Paris.  Zoologist  and 
anthropologist.  Worked  with  Milne-Edwards 
at  physiological  morphology.  An  exponent  of 
the  theory  of  the  polyphyletic  origin  of 
man. 

1810-1896. — Marie  Philibert  Constant  Sappey.  Professor 
of  descriptive  anatomy  in  Paris.  Author  of 
various  anatomical  works,  especially  on  the 
lymphatic  system.  His  “ Traite  d’Anatomie  ” 


210 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

in  four  volumes  is  illustrated  with  fine  steel 
engravings. 

1811-1870. — Sir  James  Young  Simpson. — Gynaecologist 
and  archaeologist.  Professor  of 
obstetrics  at  Edinburgh.  First 
to  use  chloroform  as  an  anaes- 
thetic in  midwifery  practice.  In- 
troduced acupressure,  1847,  and 
the  uterine  sound  into  medical 
practice,  1843.  He  originated  a 
type  of  midwifery  forceps,  and 
introduced  the  sponge  tent,  for 
dilatation  of  the  cervix  uteri  in 
diagnosis.  “ Simpson’s  pains  ” in 
uterine  cancer,  1863,  and  version 
in  deformed  pelves  are  associated  with  his 
name. 

1811- 1895.— Andrew  Yerga.  Alienist.  Director  of  the 

Ospedale  Maggiore  in  Milan.  Did  much 
to  improve  the  treatment  of  those  mentally 
afflicted  in  Italy.  Described  his  “ventricle” 
in  1851. 

1812- 1875  — John  Hughes  Bennett.  Studied  in  Germany, 

Paris  and  Edinburgh.  Became  lecturer  on 
histology  in  Edinburgh,  1841,  and  was  the  first 
to  hold  classes  to  teach  students  the  use  of  the 
microscope.  Professor  of  Institutes  of  ediejne 
1848.  While  still  a student  he  wrote  “ On 


21 1 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

the  Anatomy  and  Physiology  of  the  Optic 
Ganglions.”  He  edited  the  Edinburgh  Monthly 
Journal  of  Medical  Science  for  many  years. 

1812- 1883.— Philip  Pacini.  Professor  of  anatomy  at 

Pisa  and  Florence.  Employed  the  microscope 
to  elucidate  the  cause  of  disease,  and  recognized 
the  micro-organism  of  cholera.  He  investigated 
the  electric  organ  of  Gymnotus,  and  his  name 
is  commemorated  in  the  Pacinian  corpuscles 
of  the  skin. 

1813- 1833. — James  Marion  Sims.  American  surgeon. 

Practised  in  New  York,  where  he  was  instru- 
mental in  founding  a hospital  for  the  diseases  of 
women.  Inventor  of  the  well-known  speculum. 

1813-1873. — David  Livingstone.  Medical  missionary  and 

explorer.  Born  at  Blantyre,  near 
Glasgow.  Studied  at  Anderson 
College,  Glasgow,  and  graduated 
as  Licentiate  of  the  Faculty  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeons,  Glas- 
gow, 1840.  Practised  as  medical 
missionary  among  the  Bechuanas 
of  South  Africa  from  1840-1849. 
He  discovered  Lake  Ngami  in 
1849  and  explored  the  Zambesi 
and  Kuanza  basins  to  Loanda, 
1:851-54.  He  recrossed  the  conti- 
nent from  Loanda  to  Kilimane,and 
discovered  the  Victoria  Falls  in  1855.  He  after 


212 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

wards  discovered  Lakes  Shirwa  and  Nyassa, 
1850-59,  and  Lakes  Tanganyika,  Moero  and 
Bangweolo  in  1867-1868.  He  navigated  the 
Tanganyika,  being  driven  back  by  the  Manyema, 
and  was  relieved  by  Stanley  in  1871.  He 
returned  to  Lake  Bangweolo  and  after  enduring 
great  hardships  succumbed  to  an  attack  of 
dysentery  and  died  at  Chitambo. 

1815-1867. — John  Goodsir.  Scottish  anatomist  and  pro- 
fessor of  anatomy  at  Edinburgh.  He  obtained 
distinction  from  his  investigations  in  cellular 
pathology.  His  volume  of  “ Anatomical  Me- 
moirs ” was  published  in  1868.  He  was  one 
of  the  great  and  inspiring  teachers  of  the 
Edinburgh  medical  school. 

1815-1876. — Francis  Sibson.  M.D.Lond.  Physician  to 
St.  Mary's  Hospital  in  1851.  He  wrote  “ On 
Changes  induced  in  the  situation  and  structure 
of  the  internal  organs  under  varying  circum- 
stances of  Health  and  Disease,”  1844.  Between 
1855  and  1869  he  also  published  in  sections 
his  “ Medical  Anatomy.”  He  gave  his  name 
to  the  fascial  diaphragm  over  the  apex  of 
the  lung. 

1815-1878. — Claude  Bernard.  Born  at  St.  Julien,  France. 

Experimental  physiologist  and  pathologist.  A 
pupil  of  Magendie,  whom  he  succeeded  as 
professor  of  physiology  at  the  Sorbonne  in 
Paris.  Investigated  digestion  of  fat  by  the 


213 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

aid  of  pancreatic  juice,  formation  of  sugar 
in  the  liver,  and  the  vasomotor  nerves. 

1814-1894. — William  Alexander  Greenhill.  Medical  his- 
torian. Editor  of  Sydenham’s  works  in  1844 
and  of  the  writings  of  Sir  Thomas  Browne. 
He  translated  Rhazes  in  1847  and  wrote  many 
of  the  lives  of  physicians  in  Smith’s  Dictionary 
of  Greek  and  Roman  Biography.  He  died 
at  Hastings  where  he  had  lived  for  many 
years. 

1814-1899.— Sir  James  Paget.  Serjeant  Surgeon  to 

Queen  Victoria,  physiologist  and 
pathologist.  Surgeon  to  St. 
Bartholomew’s  Hospital  and  Pre- 
sident of  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons  of  England.  Patho- 
logist and  investigator  on  the 
subject  of  tumours  both  clinically 
and  microscopically.  He  pub- 
lished “ Lectures  on  Tumours,” 
1851,  “ Surgical  Pathology,” 

1863,  “ Clinical  Lectures  and 

Essays,”  1875,  and  compiled  the 
catalogue  of  the  Pathological 
Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons  in 
1882. 

fl.  1840.— Crawford  Williamson  Long.  M.D.  Penn- 
sylvania. Claimed  to  be  the  first  discoverer  of 
ether  anaesthesia.  Performed  the  first  operation 


214 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

with  a patient  under  its  influence  March  30, 
1842. 

1815  — Laennec  invented  the  stethoscope  and  originated 
mediate  auscultation. 

1815-1858. — Horace  Wells. — Dental  Surgeon  of  Hartford, 
Connecticut,  U.S.  First  to  use  nitrous  oxide 
gas  as  an  anaesthetic  in  dentistry  in  1844. 

1815-1876. — Sir  William  Robert  Wills  Wilde. — Irish 

ophthalmic  surgeon  and  archaeologist.  Founded 
and  edited  the  Dublin  Quarterly  Journal  of  Medical 
■ Science.  He  was  interested  in  antiquarian  re-’ 
search,  and  also  published  topographical  works 
and  observations  on  ophthalmia  and  aural 
surgery.  Father  of  Oscar  Wilde. 

1815- 1877. — Karl  Reinhold  August  Wunderlich.  Pro- 

fessor of  medicine  in  the  University  of  Tubingen. 
The  originator  of  modern  clinical  thermometry. 
He  published  his  treatise  on  the  relation  of 
animal  heat  in  disease  in  1868. 

1816- 1872. — Charles  Victor  Daremberg.  Medical  his- 

torian. Librarian  of  the  Academie  de  Mede- 
cine  and  of  the  Mazarin  Library  at  Paris.  He 
was  the  first  professor  of  the  history  of  medicine 
in  the  University  of  Paris,  and  gave  lectures  on 
the  subject  in  the  College  de  France. 

1816-1880. — Ferdinand  von  Hebra,  of  Brunn.  Founder 
of  the  histological  school  of  dermatology.  His 
classification  of  skin  diseases  (1845)  was  based 


215 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

upon  their  pathological  anatomy.  He  was  the 
hrst  to  describe  impetigo  herpetiformis. 

1816-1880. — Jacob  Augustus  Lockhart  Clarke.  Phy- 
sician to  the  Hospital  for  the  Paralysed  and 
Epileptic.  He  carefully  studied  and  illustrated 
some  original  microscopical  work  on  the  brain. 

1816-1890 — Sir  William  Gull.  Physician.  One  of  the 
first  to  note  the  posterior  spinal  lesions  in 
locomotor  ataxia  in  1856,  and  to  differentiate 
typhoid  fever.  He  described  intermittent 

haemoglobinuria  (1866),  and  was  a pioneer 
in  the  use  of  static  electricity  in  the  treatment 
of  nervous  diseases. 

1816-1892  — Sir  William  Bowman.  Physiologist  and 
ophthalmic  surgeon.  He  was  one  of  the  first 
in  England  to  devote  himself  exclusively  to 
ophthalmic  surgery.  His  name  is  com- 
memorated in  anatomy  by  “ Bowman’s 

capsule”  in  the  kidney  and  “ Bowman’s  mem- 
brane” in  the  hair  follicles. 

1816-1895. — Charles  William  Ludwig.  Professor  of  ana- 
tomy and  physiology  at  Zurich,  Vienna  and 
Leipzig.  Author  of  a manual  of  physiology 
and  a memoir  on  the  structure  and  movements 
of  the  ventricles  of  the  heart.  One  of  the  great 
physiological  teachers  of  his  age. 

1816. — Sir  Thomas  Longmore.  Military  surgeon.  Director- 
General  of  the  Army  Medical  Service.  Pro- 


216 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

fessor  of  military  surgery  at  the  Army  Medical 
School  at  Chatham.  Author  of  numerous 
treatises  on  military  surgery  and  hygiene. 
Inventor  of  the  first  electric  bullet-detector. 
He  published  “Richard  Wiseman:  A Bio- 
graphical Study,”  in  1891. 

1816- 1905. — Sir  John  Simon.  Epidemiologist.  Sur- 

geon to  St.  Thomas’s  Hospital  and  became 
medical  officer  to  the  Privy  Council.  Carried 
on  the  traditions  of  Sir  Edwin  Chadwick  in 
regard  to  public  health.  He  wrote  “ English 
Sanitary  Institutions,”  a history  of  public 
health  from  the  earliest  times. 

1817- 1895. — August  Hirsch.  Medical  bibliographer  and 

epidemiologist  ; educated  at  Berlin,  practised 
at  Danzig.  Wrote  on  the  epidemiology  of  the 
plague,  cholera,  and  malaria  Edited,  with 
Pagel,  Gurlt’s  “Biographical  Medical  Lexicon” 
in  six  volumes  1884-1888. 

1817-1895. — Edouard  Brown  - Sequard.  Physiologist. 

Born  in  Mauritius  of  American  father  and 
French  mother.  Educated  at  Paris.  Professor 
of  the  Institutes  of  Medicine  at  Richmond,  Vir- 
ginia. Returned  to  Paris,  founded  and  edited 
the  Journal  de  Physiologie.  He  became  physician 
to  the  National  Hospital  for  the  Paralysed  and 
Epileptic  on  its  foundation  in  London  in  1859. 
He  returned  to  America  as  professor  of  the 
physiology  and  pathology  of  the  nervous 


217 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

system  at  Harvard  in  1863,  but  returned  to 
Paris  in  1872.  His  name  is  more  especially 
associated  with  the  experimental  production 
of  epilepsy  and  the  existence  of  vasomotor 
nerves. 

1818  1865  — Ignaz  Philipp  Semmelweis,  of  Vienna. 

Obstetrician.  He  taught  that 
puerperal  fever  was  due  to  in- 
fection borne  from  the  dissecting 
room,  and  was  preventible.  In 
1847  he  carried  his  teaching  into 
practice  by  ordering  his  students 
to  wash  in  a solution  of  chlorin- 
ated lime  before  making  an  ex- 
amination in  the  labour  wards  of 
the  Vienna  Lying-in  Hospital. 
He  was  appointed  professor  of 
midwifery  at  Budapest  in  1855, 
but  his  views  were  bitterly  opposed. 

1818  1889. — Frans  Cornells  Donders.  Ophthalmologist. 

Teacher  of  anatomy,  histology  and  physiology 
at  the  Military  Medical  School  of  Utrecht  in 
1847.  He  did  much  to  advance  the  knowledge 
of  colour  vision  and  of  errors  in  the  refraction 
of  the  eye,  and  their  treatment  by  spectacles. 
He  improved  Helmholtz’s  ophthalmoscope  by 
making  the  central  hole  in  the  mirror. 

1818-1892. — Henry  Jacob  Bigelow.  Surgeon  to  the 
Massachusetts  General  Hospital  and  professor 


218 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

of  surgery  at  Harvard,  U.S.  He  took  an 
active  part  in  the  early  anaesthetic  experi- 
ments. He  published  his  method  of  reducing 
dislocations  of  the  shoulder  in  1869. 

1818- 1897.  — Sir  Thomas  Spencer  Wells.  Gynaecolo- 

gist. Practised  in  London,  1854.  Served  in 
the  Crimea  as  a naval  surgeon  and  returned  to 
England  much  less  afraid  of  abdominal  wounds 
than  his  contemporaries  who  had  only  civilian 
experience.  In  1858  he  began  to  perform 
ovariotomies  in  spite  of  great  opposition. 
President  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons. 
A baronetcy  was  conferred  upon  him  in  1882. 

1819- 1868. — William  Thomas  Green  Morton.  Dentist 
of  Charlton,  Massachusetts,  U.S. 
First  used  ether  in  1846  to  pro- 
duce anaesthesia  for  dental  opera- 
tions, and  on  October  16,  1846,^ 
he  administered  it  successfully  in 
a case  of  congenital  vascular 
tumour  of  the  neck,  operated 
upon  by  Dr.  John  Collins  Warren 
in  the  Massachusetts  General 
Hospital.  Morton  did  not  reveal 
the  secret  of  the  agent  he  used 
until  November  1846,  and  called 
it  “ Letheon.” 

1819-1872. — Wenzel  Treitz.  Professor  of  pathological 
anatomy  at  Cracow  and  Prague.  He  described 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

his  ligament  in  1853,  and  wrote  on  retro- 
peritoneal hernia  in  1856. 

1819-1876.— Edmund  A.  Parkes.  Epidemiologist. 

Appointed  to  the  first  Chair  of  Hygiene  founded 
in  England  at  the  Army  Medical  School  at 
Netley  in  i860.  Established  the  Parkes 
Museum  of  Hygiene.  Author  of  “ Manual  of 
Practical  Hygiene,”  1864. 

1819- 1892. — Josef  Ritter  von  Artha  Hasner.  Austrian 

ophthalmologist.  Professor  of  ophthalmology 
at  Prague.  Published  1850  a work  on  the 
physiology  and  pathology  of  the  lachrymal 
apparatus,  describing  the  valve  of  the  nasal 
duct  which  is  called  by  his  name.  Editor  of 
the  Prager  vied.  Vierteljahrsschrift. 

1820- 1875^ — Hubert  von  Luschka.  Professor  of  anatomy 

at  Tubingen.  Author  of  a human  anatomy 
in  three  volumes  and  anatomical  papers 
(1862-1867).  The  lateral  foramina  in  the  roof 
of  the  fourth  ventricle  are  called  by  his  name. 

1820- 1904. — Sir  Henry  Thompson.  Surgeon  and  litho- 

tomist.  Performed  lithotomy  on  the  Emperor 
Napoleon  III  in  1873.  Author  of  many  works 
on  pathology  and  treatment  of  the  urethra. 

1821- 1890. — Gottlieb  Friedrich  Heinrich  Klichenmeister. 

Parasitologist.  Practised  at  Dresden  and 
studied  more  especially  the  life-history  of  the 
tapeworm. 


220 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

1821-1894. — Herman  Ludwig  Ferdinand  Yon  Helm- 
holtz. Successively  professor  of  pathology  at 
Konigsberg ; of  anatomy  and  physiology  at 
Bonn  ; of  physiology  at  Heidelberg,  and  of 
physics  at  Berlin.  He  wrote  on  the  physiology 
of  hearing  and  on  physiological  acoustics.  He 
invented  an  ophthalmoscope  in  1851  and  com- 
pleted the  demonstration  of  the  mechanism  of 
accommodation  in  the  eye. 

1821-1898. — Carlo  Giacornini.  Professor  of  Turin  Uni- 
versity. Published  his  work  on  the  hippo- 
campus in  1833,  describing  the  “ bundle  of 
Giacornini  ” in  the  olfactory  tract. 

1821- 1902. — Rudolf  Virchow.  Professor  of  pathology  at 

the  University  of  Berlin.  His  work  on  Cellu- 
lar Pathology  published  in  1858  had  a marked 
influence  on  the  pathological  teaching  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  He  was  also  a politician, 
an  anthropologist  and  an  archaeologist.  He 
edited  the  well-known  Virchow's  Archiv  for 
pathological  anatomy. 

1822- 1895. — Louis  Pasteur.  French  chemist  and  scien- 

tist. Professor  of  physics  at  Dijon.  Professor 
and  Dean  of  the  Faculty  of  Science  at  Lille, 
1854.  Professor  at  the  Sorbonne.  He  com- 
menced his  famous  researches  on  fermenta- 
tion in  the  latter  city.  In  1865  he  successfully 
investigated  silkworm  disease,  and  in  1877  he 


221 


The  Nineteenth  Century 


commenced  his  work  on  anthrax,  announcing 
in  1881  his  discovery  of  a protective  vaccine 
consisting  of  the  attenuated  virus.  At  the 
same  time  he  investigated  hydrophobia,  com- 
mencing in  1884,  under  the  authority  of  the 
French  Government,  his  experiments  on  the 
cortex  of  rabid  dogs.  In  1885  he  performed 
the  first  protective  inoculation,  which  was 
successful.  Towards  the  end  of  his  life  he 
inaugurated,  in  conjunction  with  Roux,  who 
had  been  his  assistant  throughout,  a series  of 
researches  on  diphtheria  which  resulted  in  the 
discovery  of  the  serum  now  so  largely  used. 
He  was  the  founder  of  the  science  of  bacterio- 
logy. 

1824- 1881.— Peter  Paul  Broca.  French  surgeon  and 

anthropologist.  Professor  of  clinical  surgery 
at  Paris.  Published  a descriptive  anatomy, 
T865,  also  various  works  on  aphasia  and  cranio- 
cerebral topography. 

1825- 1893. — Jean-Martin  Charcot.  Physician  to  the 

Salpetriere  at  Paris,  wdth  which  his  name  is 
indissolubly  connected.  He  was  a great  clinical 
teacher  of  neurology.  His  name  is  asso- 
ciated with  the  condition  of  the  joints  known 
as  ‘‘'Charcot’s  disease.”  He  was  also  an  artist 
of  some  ability,  and  studied  medical  history 
on  its  artistic  side. 

1825-1895. — Thomas  Henry  Huxley.  Biologist.  Lecturer 
on  natural  history  at  the  Royal  School  of  Mines 


222 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

in  London.  The  staunch  advocate  of  Charles 
Darwin  and  a great  popularizer  of  biological 
teaching  in  England. 

1825  - 1895.  — Ernest  Felix  Immanuel  Hoppe-Seyler. 

Professor  of  chemistry  at  Strasburg.  A pioneer 
in  physiological  chemistry.  Editor  of  the 
Zeitschrift  fur  physiologisthe  Cliemie,  1877-1894. 

1826-1898. — Andreas  Anagnostakis.  Ophthalmic  surgeon. 

Born  in  Crete.  Was  in  general  practice  before 
he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of  ophthalm- 
ology. He  became  Professor  of  ophthalmology 
at  the  University  of  Athens,  and  published  in 
1872  “ Contributions  relating  to  Ophthalmic 
Surgery  amongst  the  Ancients.”  He  invented 
an  ophthalmoscope  while  he  was  a student,  but 
published  no  account  of  it  until  1854. 
Helmholtz  previously  published  an  account  of 
an  instrument  he  had  invented  in  1851,  which 
was  modified  by  Donders,  who  made  the  central 
hole  in  the  mirror. 

1827  - 1900.  — Richard  Neale.  M.D. London.  Medical 
bibliographer.  Whilst  conducting  a busy 
general  practice  in  London  for  a period  of 
fifty  years  he  edited  The  Medical  Digest , “ a 
successor  to  Watt’s  Bibliotheca  Britannica  ” 
and  a predecessor  of  the  “ Index  Medicus.”  A 
portrait  of  him  hangs  in  the  Royal  College  of 
Surgeons  of  England. 


223 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

1827-1912. — Lord  Lister  (Joseph).  Surgeon.  Born  at 
Upton,  Essex.  He  became  a 
student  at  University  College, 
London,  and  graduated  in  1852. 
He  studied  under  and  became 

assistant  to  Syme,  and  was 
appointed  professor  of  surgery  at 
Glasgow  University  in  i860. 
Here  he  commenced  his 
investigations  in  connection 

with  the  use  of  antiseptics, 

which  afterwards  caused  a 

revolution  in  surgery  and  proved 
of  incalculable  value  to  mankind. 
From  his  discoveries  the  present  system  of 
aseptic  surgery  developed.  He  communicated 
his  successful  results  at  a meeting  of  the  British 
Medical  Association  in  Dublin  in  1867.  He 
based  his  antiseptic  teaching  on  the  theory  of 
putrefaction,  and  first  used  undiluted  carbolic 
acid  to  destroy  septic  organisms  in  a case  of 
compound  fracture  in  Glasgow  Infirmary  in 
1865.  He  was  appointed  professor  of  clinical 
surgery  at  King’s  College,  London,  in  1877, 
where  he  first  used  his  carbolic  spray.  He  was 
raised  to  the  peerage  in  1897,  and  died  in 
London  in  1912. 

1828  - 1870.  — Albrecht  von  Graefe.  Professor  of 
ophthalmic  surgery  in  the  University  of  Berlin, 
son  of  the  surgeon  Carl  Ferdinand  von  Graefe 


224 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

(1787-1840)  and  was  a pupil  of  Arlt,  Sichel, 
Desmarres,  Von  Jaeger,  Bowman  and  Critchett. 
Founder  of  the  Avchiv  fur  Ophthalmologie  (1854). 
Invented  the  modern  method  of  linear  extrac- 
tion of  cataract.  His  name  is  associated  with 
“ Graefe’s  knife.” 

1828-1896. — Sir  Benjamin  Ward  Richardson.  Physician. 

Specialised  in  public  health  and  dietetics.  Pub- 
lished many  works  on  these  subjects,  also  on 
alcoholism  and  intemperance.  Author  of 
“Diseases  of  Modern  Life,”  1876,  “National 
Health,”  1890,  “ Vita  Medica,”  1897. 

1828- 1897. — Etienne  Tarnier.  French  obstetrician.  In- 

troduced his  first  axis  traction  forceps  for 
midwifery,  1877,  °f  which  there  are  several 
types,  and  was  the  first  to  use  carbolic  solution 
in  obstetrics. 

1829- 1905. — George  Meissner.  German  anatomist.  A 

pupil  of  Joh.  Muller.  Professor  of  anatomy 
and  physiology  at  Bale  and  afterwards  at 
Gottingen.  Described  his  tactile  corpuscles  in 
1852,  and  published  in  1853  “ Contributions  to 
the  anatomy  and  physiology  of  the  skin." 

1830- 1914. — Silas  Weir  Mitchell.  American  neurologist 

who  introduced  a special  method  of  treatment 
by  rest  and  diet  which  is  called  after  his 
name.  He  is  known  also  as  a poet  and 

novelist. 


p 


225 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

1 831- 1897  — Alarik  Frithiof  Holmgren.  Swedish  physi- 

ologist. Professor  of  physiology  in  the 
University  of  Upsala.  He  worked  especially 
on  colour  vision.  His  name  is  associated  with 
“Holmgren’s  wools”  which  are  used  as  tests 
for  colour  blindness. 

1832- 1919. — Sir  William  Crookes.  Scientist  and  chemist. 

Pioneer  in  the  investigation  of  phenomena 
shown  by  gases  under  greatly  reduced  pressure. 
He  discovered  thallium,  a new  metallic  element, 
and  in  1875  invented  the  radiometer.  From 
his  researches  Radiography  became  possible. 

1834-1907.  — Dmitri  Ivanovitsch  Mendeleeff.  Russian 
chemist  and  professor  of  chemistry  in  the  Uni- 
versity of  Petrograd,  1866.  In  1869  he 
first  published  his  famous  table.  He  was  the 
first  not  only  to  formulate  a general  law 
connecting  atomic  weights  with  properties,  but 
was  also  the  first  to  indicate  the  character  known 
as  the  law  of  periodicity. 

1834  1919.  — Ernst  Heinrich  Haeckel.  Professor  of 
zoology  at  Jena.  The  chief  exponent  of 
materialistic  evolution.  He  held  the  position 
that  the  development  of  the  individual  is  a con- 
densed recapitulation  of  the  development  of 
the  race,  and  made  a complete  list  of  the  steps 
of  evolution  including  many  purely  hypothetical 
forms. 


226 


The  Nineteenth  Centuiy 

1834-1863  — Otto  Friedrich  Karl  Deiters.  Pupil  of 
Virchow  at  Berlin.  His  work  on  the  me- 
dulla oblongata,  published  1865,  described  the 
“nucleus  of  Deiters.”  He  also  wrote  various 
papers  on  the  Internal  Ear. 

1834- 1911. — John  Hughlings  Jackson,  M.D.  Pioneer  in 

the  diagnosis  and  treatment  of  diseases  of  the 
nervous  system.  He  was  the  first  to  establish 
the  use  of  the  ophthalmoscope  in  the  diagnosis 
of  diseases  of  the  brain.  His  name  is  com- 
memorated in  the  term  “Jacksonian  epilepsy,” 
which  he  first  described  in  1S75. 

1835- 1922. — Louis  Ranvier.  Professor  of  anatomy  at 

the  College  de  France.  Published  a treatise 
of  histology,  1877-82.  The  “ nodes  of 
Ranvier  ” commemorate  his  name. 

1836- 1907. — Sir  Michael  Foster.  Praelector  of  physio- 

logy at  the  University  of  Cambridge.  Founder 
of  the  School  of  Cambridge  physiologists,  as 
represented  by  Martin,  Gaskell,  Fangley  and 
Fea.  His  textbook  of  Physiology  passed 
through  seven  editions,  and  was  translated  into 
several  languages. 

1838-1896. — Edouard  Nicaise,  of  Paris.  Medical  historian, 
Surgeon  to  the  Hopital  Eaennec  in  Paris.  He 
edited,  with  illuminating  prefaces  and  notes,  the 
works  of  Mondeville,  Chauliac  and  Franco. 

1838-1913.— John  Shaw  Billings.  Medical  bibliographer. 

He  started  and  carried  to  a successful  issue 


227 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

with  the  help  of  Robert  Fletcher  (1823-1912) 
the  great  Index  Catalogue  of  the  Surgeon- 
General’sLibrary  at  Washington. 

1838- 1915. — George  Miller  Sternberg.  Epidemiologist. 

Surgeon-General  United  States  Army,  1893- 
1902.  Creator  of  the  Army  Medical  School 
and  organizer  of  the  Army  Nursing  Corps  in 
the  United  States.  Demonstrated  the  pneumo- 
coccus in  1880,  put  forward  a theory  of 
phagocytosis  in  1881.  He  demonstrated  the 
plasmodium  in  a malarial  patient  in  1885  for 
the  first  time  in  the  United  States.  He  also 
devoted  much  time  to  the  stud}?  of  yellow  fever. 

1839- 1884. — Julius  Friedrich  Cohnheim.  Professor  of 

pathology  at  Kiel,  1868,  and  afterwards  at 
Breslau  and  Leipzig.  He  wrote  on  tuberculosis, 
also  on  embolism,  and  published  an  “ Introduc- 
tion to  General  Pathology,”  1877-1880. 

1840- 1910. — Joseph  Frank  Payne.  Medical  historian. 

Physician  to  St.  Thomas’  Hospital,  London, 
where  he  devoted  himself  more  especially  to 
diseases  of  the  skin.  He  did  much  by  his 
writings  and  research  to  advance  the  study  of 
medical  history  in  England. 

1840-1911. — Henry  Pickering  Bowditch.  American 
physiologist.  Founder  of  the  physiological 
laboratory  in  the  United  States  (1871).  He  did 
important  work  on  the  heart  muscle,  knee-jerk 
and  nerve  fatigue. 


228 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

1841-1898. — Joseph  O’Dwyer,  of  Cleveland,  Ohio. 

Surgeon  to  the  Foundling  Hospital  of  New 
York.  He  perfected  and  brought  into  practical 
use  the  method  of  intubating  the  larynx  as  a 
substitute  for  tracheotomy.  The  first  suc- 
cessful case  was  in  1884. 

1842. — Long  first  used  ether  as  an  anaesthetic  when 
operating. 

1843-1910.— Robert  Koch,  M.D.,  of  Gottingen.  Bacterio- 
logist. The  originator  of  modern  bacteriology 
by  plate  cultures  about  1880.  He  discovered 
the  tubercle  bacillus  in  1882  and  the  vibrio 
of  cholera  in  1883.  He  was  afterwards  professor 
of  hygiene  and  bacteriology  at  the  University 
of  Berlin. 

1844. — The  Royal  College  of  Veterinary  Surgeons  received 
its  Charter. 

1814-1922. — Sir  Patrick  Manson.  “Father  of  Tropical 
Medicine  in  Great  Britain.”  He 
studied  at  Aberdeen  and  Edin- 
burgh Universities  and  shortly 
after  coming  of  age  accepted  an 
appointment  in  the  Island  of 
Formosa.  While  in  the  East, 
from  1871  he  began  to  study  the 
diseases  of  the  tropics  and  investi- 
gated the  Filaria  bancrofti  and 
proved  by  experiments  on  his 
Chinese  servant  that  the  organism 
was  carried  to  man  by  mosquitoes. 


229 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

These  investigations  led  to  the  study  of  the 
cause  of  malarial  fever,  of  which  he  was 
eventually  instrumental  in  discovering  that 
mosquitoes  were  the  carriers  of  the  parasite 
of  disease  to  man.  During  his  career  he 
contributed  largely  to  the  knowledge  of  many 
other  tropical  diseases  and  animal  parasites. 
He  founded  the  London  School  of  Tropical 
Medicine. 

1845-1915. — Sir  William  Richard  Gowers.  One  of  the 

founders  of  neurology.  He  worked  on  the 
minute  anatomy  of  the  nervous  system  as  well 
as  on  the  clinical  aspects  of  disease. 

1845-1916.  — Ilia  (Elie)  Metchnikoff.  Russian  biologist 
and  comparative  embryologist. 
After  teaching  at  Kieff  and 
Odessa  in  Russia  he  settled  in 
1888  at  the  Institut  Pasteur  in 
Paris.  With  a lively  imagination, 
he  was  also  endowed  with 
experimental  ability  and  a most 
picturesque  style  of  writing.  He 
is  best  known  for  his  theory  of 
phagocytosis  which  led  to  the  con- 
ception of  immunity  and  serum- 
therapy. 

1845-1922. — Charles  Louis  Alphonse  Laveran.  Parasit- 
ologist. Director  of  French  Military  Medical 
School  at  Val-de-Grace,  Paris,  afterwards  a pro- 


230 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

fessor  at  the  Institut  Pasteur  where  he  devoted 
himself  to  the  study  of  parasitology.  He  was 
the  first  to  observe  the  haematozoon  in  the  blood 
of  a patient  suffering  from  malaria,  on 
November  6,  1880.  He  studied  the  parasitic 
sporozoa  of  animals.  Published  the  first  edition 
of  his  treatise  on  malaria  in  1898,  and  on  trypano- 
somes in  1904.  For  42  years  he  devoted  all  his 
energies  to  the  study  of  pathogenic  protozoa  and 
their  relation  to  disease  in  man  and  animals. 

1845- 1923. — Wilhelm  Conrad  von  Rontgen,  born  in 

Rhenish  Prussia.  Educated  in  Holland  and 
Switzerland.  D.Sc.  Zurich.  Professor  of 
physics  at  Wurzburg.  Discovered  X-rays 
November  8,  1895,  and  communicated  his 
discovery  to  the  Physical  Society  at  Wurzburg, 
January,  1896. 

1846. — Morton  employed  ether  as  an  anaesthetic  when 
extracting  a tooth. 

1846. — Liston  employed  ether  for  the  first  time  in  England 
as  an  anaesthetic  in  an  operation  for  amputation 
of  the  thigh  at  University  College  Hospital. 

1846- 1901.— Alexander  Kowalevsky.  Russian  morpho- 

logist. Professor  at  Petrograd.  His  work  was 
a continuation  of  Rathke’s.  He  made  the 
development  of  amphioxus  the  key  to  verte- 
brate embryology,  described  the  development 
of  ascidians,  and  made  many  valuable  dis- 
coveries. The  neurenteric  canal  is  sometimes 
called  by  his  name. 


231 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

1847. — Chloroform  first  used  as  an  anaesthetic  in  obstetrics 
by  Sir  James  Y.  Simpson. 

1847-1922. — Alexander  Graham  Bell.  Physiologist  and 
Inventor,  Graduated  at  Edin- 
burgh University,  and  University 
College,  London.  Emigrated  to 
Canada,  1870,  and  subsequently 
became  professor  of  physiology 
at  Boston.  He  was  the  inventor 
of  the  telephone,  gramophone 
and  photophone  and  also  devoted 
attention  to  the  problem  of  flight, 
to  the  location  of  bullets  and  to 
the  education  of  those  born  deaf. 

1847-1922.  — Sir  Norman  Moore,  Bt.  M.D.Camb. 

1876.  Physician  to  St.  Bartho- 
lomew’s Hospital,  1902-1911. 
Harveian  Librarian  from  1910- 
1922  ; President  of  the  Royal 
College  of  Physicians  from  1918- 
1922. 

He  devoted  much  of  his  life 
to  the  study  of  the  history  of 
medicine  and  by  his  teaching  and 
scholarly  works  became  one  of 
the  leaders  who  revived  the 
interest  in  this  subject  in  Great 
Britain.  Through  his  influence  the  FitzPatrick 


232 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

lectures  on  the  history  of  medicine  were 
established  at  the  Royal  College  of  Physicians 
and  he  delivered  the  first  course  in  1906. 

He  published  “ The  History  of  Medicine  in 
Ireland”  1910;  “History  of  St.  Bartholomew’s 
Hospital  ” 1919,  and  was  the  author  of  many 
papers  and  lectures  on  historical  medical 
subjects. 

1849-1879. — Franz  Christian  Boll.  Physiologist.  Born 
at  Neubrandenberg,  he  became  assistant  in 
du  Bois-Reymond’s  institute  at  Berlin  and  was 
afterwards  professor  of  physiology  at  Rome. 
He  discovered  the  visual  purple  of  the  retina. 

1 849-ilhM}. — Sir  William  Osier,  Bt.,  M.D.,  F.R.S.  Born 
in  Canada,  of  English  parents.  He  graduated  at 
McGill  University,  Montreal,  1872.  Afterwards 
studied  in  Glasgow,  Edinburgh,  Berlin  and 
Vienna.  Became  professor  of  clinical  medicine 
at  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  Philadelphia, 
and  afterwards  at  Johns  Hopkins  University, 
Baltimore.  Appointed  Regius  Professor  of 
Medicine  at  Oxford,  1905.  He  was  an  inspiring 
teacher,  a man  of  great  personal  charm,  and 
was  keenly  interested  in  the  study  of  the 
history  of  medicine.  His  “ Principles  and  Prac- 
tice of  Medicine,”  1892,  became  the  standard 
textbook  on  the  subject  of  which  it  treats. 

1851-1912. — Julius  Leopold  Pagel.  Medical  historian. 

Studied  and  practised  at  Berlin.  Translated 


233 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

Sydenham’s  treatise  on  Gout  into  German. 
Edited  (1901)  a medical  biographical  lexicon. 
Was  privat-docent  of  the  history  of  medicine  in 
the  University  of  Berlin. 

1851- 1920.— Sir  Peter  J.  Freyer.  Surgeon  in  the  Indian 

Medical  Service,  afterwards  practised  in 
London.  He  introduced  the  suprapubic 
operation  for  the  removal  of  the  prostate. 

1852- 1916. — Sir  William  Ramsay.  Chemist  and  scientist. 

Professor  of  chemistry  at  University  College, 
London,  1887.  Discovered  argon  in  1894, 
helium  1895,  also  neon,  krypton  and  xenon. 

1852-1922. — William  Stewart  Halsted.  Professor  of 
surgery  at  Johns  Hopkins  University. 
Educated  at  Yale,  Vienna,  Leipzig  and 
Wurzburg.  Chief  exponent  of  the  radical 
operation  for  amputation  of  the  breast. 
Introduced  the  use  of  rubber  gloves  into 
surgery. 

1854-1907. — James  Carroll.  Surgeon-major,  U.S.A. 

Born  at  Woolwich,  England.  Entered  the 
United  States  Army  as  a private  and  rose  to 
the  rank  of  hospital  steward.  He  studied 
medicine  and  graduated  M.D.  at  the  University 
of  Maryland,  Baltimore,  in  1891,  and  bacter- 
iology at  the  Johns  Hopkins  University. 
Re-entered  the  U.S.  Army  as  a commissioned 
officer  and  rose  to  the  rank  of  major.  Shares 
with  Major  Walter  Reed,  Dr.  Jesse  W.  Lazear 


234 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

and  Dr.  Agramonte  the  discovery  of  the 
transmission  of  yellow  fever  by  the  bite  of 
the  mosquito  Stegotnyia  fasciata.  Carroll 
demonstrated  the  cause  by  allowing  himself  to 
be  inoculated  experimentally  on  August  27, 
1900.  Dr.  Lazear,  who  was  also  inoculated  a 
week  or  two  later,  died  of  the  disease. 

1854-1915. — Paul  Ehrlich.  Haematologist,  therapeutist 
and  chemist.  Director  of  the  institute  for 
experimental  therapy  at  Frankfurt-on-Main. 
He  was  the  founder  of  modern  haematology 
and  introduced  the  organic  compounds  of 
arsenic  in  the  treatment  of  syphilis. 

1854-1920. — William  C.  Gorgas.  S urgeon-General  in 

the  United  States  Medical  Service.  Applied 
his  knowledge  to  tropical  disease  successfully 
and  freed  Havana  and  Panama  from  yellow 
fever. 

1855.  — Manuel  Garcia  introduced  the  laryngoscope. 

1856.  — Sir  William  Perkin  (1838-1907)  first  obtained 

aniline  dyes  from  coal  tar. 

1860-1904. — Niels  Finsen.  Danish  physician.  Professor 
of  anatomy  at  Copenhagen.  He  was  always 
interested  in  research  on  the  reaction  of  light 
on  the  tissues  and  in  1893  published  his  first 
essay  on  the  value  of  red  light  in  the  treatment 
of  smallpox.  In  1895  he  opened  the  Light 
Institute  at  Copenhagen  and  was  awarded  the 
Nobel  prize  for  his  contributions  to  light 
therapy. 


235 


The  Nineteenth  Century 

1871- 1906.— Fritz  Schaudinn.  Protozoologist.  Studied 

at  Berlin,  and  whilst  working  with  Erich 
Hoffman  discovered  the  Spivochaeta  pallida, 
the  causal  organism  ot  syphilis. 

1872- 1922, — Iwan  Bloch.  Syphilographer.  Educated  at 

Bonn,  Heidelberg  and  Berlin.  M.D.  Wurzburg. 
He  published  two  valuable  works  on  the  origin 
of  Syphilis  in  1901  and  1910  to  show  that  the 
disease  was  of  recent  origin  in  Europe  and  that 
there  is  no  mention  of  it  in  the  classical  writers 
of  antiquity. 

1880.— L averan  discovers  the  parasite  of  malarial  fever. 

1882. — Koch  discovers  the  tubercle  bacillus. 

1882.  — -Loffler  discovers  the  bacillus  of  glanders. 

1883.  — Pasteur  vaccinates  against  anthrax. 

1883.  — Koch  discovers  cholera  bacillus. 

1884.  — Nicolaier  discovers  tetanus  bacillus. 

1885.  — Pasteur  inoculates  for  rabies. 

1887.  — Bruce  discovers  the  bacillus  of  Malta  fever. 

1888.  — Roux  and  Yersin  investigate  the  toxins  of  diph- 

theria. 

1888. — Institut  Pasteur  founded. 

1890. — Behring  treats  diphtheria  with  antitoxin. 

1894. — Kitasato  and  Yersin  discover  the  plague  bacillus. 
1897. — Shiga  discovers  the  dysentery  bacillus. 

1903. — Bruce  demonstrates  that  sleeping  sickness  is 
transmitted  by  the  tsetse-fly. 

1905. — Schaudinn  discovers  the  parasite  of  syphilis. 


236 


Chronology  of  Drugs 


CHRONOLOGICAL  REVIEW 


OF  THE 

DISCOVERY  AND  INTRODUCTION  OF  SOME 
DRUGS  AND  REMEDIAL  AGENTS 
EMPLOYED  IN  MEDICINE. 

ANTIQUITY. 

SULPHUR.  Used  from  an  unknown  period  of  antiquity. 

SODIUM  CHLORIDE  ) Were  used  at  a period  of  great 
TURPENTINE  j antiquity. 

ALUM  and  OLIBANUM.  Used  by  the  ancient  Egyptians 
and  the  early  Hebrews. 

POMEGRANATE.  Used  by  Egyptians  and  Assyrians, 
ca.  2500  b.c. 

SOAP.  Known  to  the  Babylonians  2500  b.c.  Mentioned 
by  Pliny. 

OPIUM.  Used  by  the  Egyptians,  ca.  2500  b.c. 
HEMLOCK.  Mentioned  in  Egyptian  papyrus,  ca.  2300  b.c. 
MYRRH.  Used  by  the  Egyptians,  2000  b.c. 

ALOES 

MANDRAGORA 
LEAD  SULPHATE 
PEPPERMINT 

237 


Used  by  ancient  Egyptians,  men- 
tioned in  Papyrus  Ebers,  ca. 
1500  B.C. 


Chronology  of  Dr  Tigs 


NATRON  (sodium 

CARBONATE) 


CASTOR  OIL 
RED  LEAD 


I mentioned  in  Papyrus  Ebers 
about  1500  b.c. 


Used  by  ancient  Egyptians, 


COPPER  OXYACETATE 


CALAMINE 

CORIANDER 


/ 


OX  GALL.  Used  ca.  1500  b.c. 

ANTIMONY  SULPHIDE.  Known  ca.  1500  b.c. 

AMMONIUM  CHLORIDE.  Mentioned  by  Herodotus. 

MERCURY.  Mentioned  by  Aristotle,  400  b.c.  Termed 
by  Theophrastus  ca.  300  b.c.  ‘ Liquid  Silver.’ 

SCAMMONY.  Described  by  Theophrastus,  300  b.c. 
Known  to  Hippocrates,  5th  century  b.c. 

VINEGAR.  Mentioned  by  Hippocrates. 

ALUM.  Known  to  Hippocrates,  5th  century  b.c. 

ORPIMENT  (yellow  sulphuret  of  arsenic).  Known  to 
Hippocrates,  5th  century  b.c. 

ACONITE.  Known  to  the  ancient  Greeks  as  a poison 
b.c.  300-400. 

LIQUORICE  ROOT.  Mentioned  by  Theophrastus,  ca. 
300  B.C. 

CLOVES.  Known  to  the  Chinese  ca.  266  b.c. 

ZINC  OXIDE.  Known  to  the  ancient  Greeks  by  the 
names  of  “ cadmia  ” or  “ pompholix,”  but  called  by 
the  alchemists  “ lana  philosophica.” 

COPPER  SULPHATE.  Known  to  the  ancient  Greeks  as 
“ Chalcanthum  ” and  by  the  Romans  as  “ Atramentum 
sutorium.”  Its  nature  is  described  by  Basil  Valentine, 
and  the  method  of  preparation  by  Van  Helmont  in 
1644,  and  by  Glauber  in  1684. 


238 


Chronology  of  Drugs 


Described  by  Dioscorides  ca.  a.d.  40. 


CREAM  OF  TARTAR  (crude)  was  known  to  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans  as  “ faex  vini.” 

DIACHYLON  PLASTER.  First  mentioned  by  Pliny, 
ca.  a.d.  50. 

AMMONIACUM) 

MALE  FERN 

COLCHICUM 

VALERIAN 

POTASSIUM  CARBONATE.,  Mentioned  by  Dioscorides, 
ca.  a.d.  40. 

REALGAR  (red  sulpburet  of  arsenic).  Used  by  the  Greeks 
in  the  time  of  Dioscorides,  ca.  a.d.  40. 

CAMPHOR.  Introduced  into  Europe  in  the  sixth  century. 


ARAB  PERIOD 

SALTPETRE.  Described  by  Geber  in  the  eighth  century. 

ARSENIOUS  ACID  ‘Known  to  Geber  m the  e.ghth  century. 

SULPHURIC  ACID.  First  mentioned  by  Geber  in  the 
eighth  century. 

MERCURIC  CHLORIDE.  Known  to  Rhazes  and  Avicenna. 

POTASSIUM  NITRATE  \ Described  by  Geber,  ca. 

CORROSIVE  SUBLIMATE!  a.d.  750. 

SILVER  NITRATE.  Known  to  Geber,  but  not  used  in 
medicine  until  the  seventeenth  century,  when  it  was 
introduced  by  Angele  Sala  as  “ Magisterium  argenti  ” 
or  “ Crystal  Diana." 

SENNA  LEAVES.  Known  to  Serapion  the  Elder,  ninth 
to  tenth  century. 

NUX  VOMICA.  Known  to  the  Arabs  in  the  eleventh 
century.  Introduced  into  England  in  1540. 


239 


Chronology  oj  Drugs 


MEDIAEVAL  PERIOD  XIII-XYII  CENTURY. 


ALCOHOL.  Prepared  by  Raymond  Lully  in  the  thirteenth 
century. 

AMMONIUM  CARBONATE.  Prepared  by  Raymond  Lully 
from  urine  in  the  thirteenth  century. 

AMMONIATED  MERCURY.  Known  to  Raymond  Lully. 

CALOMEL.  Known  in  the  thirteenth  century.  Probably 
took  its  name  from  a famous  Italian  chemist  of 
Ferrara.  Is  also  said  to  have  been  named  by  Torquet 
de  Mayerne  in  honour  of  his  young  negro  assistant.  It 
was  formerly  known  as  mercurius  dulcis,  and  the 
name  calomel  was  originally  given  to  the  black 
sulphuret  of  mercury. 

POTASSIUM  SULPHATE.  Known  to  Isaac  of  Holland 
in  the  fourteenth  century  and  is  described  by  Croll 
in  1608  as  “ Specificum  purgans  Paracelsi.” 

ZINC  SULPHATE  | Known  to  Basil 

FERRIC  CHLORIDE  - Valentine  in  the 

SPIRIT  OF  NITROUS  ETHER]  fifteenth  century. 

BELLADONNA.  First  mentioned  about  1504. 

CATECHU.  Described  by  Barbosa  in  1514. 

iETHER  was  discovered  by  Valerius  Cordus  about  1540 
and  known  as  “ Oleum  vitrioli  dulce.”  It  was  re- 
discovered by  Frobenius,  a London  apothecary,  about 
1730. 

JALAP.  Introduced  into  Europe  from  Mexico  ca.  1550. 

BALSAM  OF  PERU  ) Introduced  into  Europe  by  Monardes 

BALSAM  OF  TOLU  1 in  1565  and  1574. 


IPECACUANHA 
COPAIBA  BALSAM 


Brought  to  Europe  by  the  Portuguese 
from  Brazil,  1570.  Ipecacuanha 
is  mentioned  by  Purchas  in  “ His 
Pilgrims,”  1625. 


240 


Chronology  of  Drugs 

HYDROCHLORIC  ACID.  First  known  as  “ royal  water.” 
Glauber  prepared  it  by  distillation  of  sodium  chloride 
and  sulphuric  acid  (ca.  1650),  it  being  known  then  as 
“ Spiritus  fumans  Glauberi.” 

LEAD  ACETATE.  Known  to  Geber  in  eighth  century, 
but  it  was  not  employed  in  medicine  until  1760,  when 
Goulard  recommended  it  in  the  form  of  “ Aqua 
Vegeto  mineralis  Goulardi.” 

GUAIACUM.  Introduced  into  Europe  from  St.  Domingo 
in  1509.  It  was  known  as  “ The  Wood.” 

BENZOIC  ACID.  Known  in  1608. 

TARTARATED  ANTIMONY  was  prepared  by  Mynsicht 
in  1631. 

ZINC  CHLORIDE  was  described  by  Glauber  in  1648, 
and  known  as  “ Oleum  lapidis  calaminaris.” 

SODIUM  SULPHATE.  First  prepared  by  Glauber  in 
1658  and  still  known  as  “ Glauber’s  Salt.” 

POTASSIUM  PERMANGANATE  was  discovered  by 
Glauber,  but  its  composition  was  not  known  until 
described  by  Mitscherlich  in  1630.  Scheele  renamed 
it  “ Chamaeleon  minerale.” 

AMMONIUM  ACETATE  was  introduced  by  Minderer, 
and  still  bears  his  name. 

PHOSPHORUS  was  discovered  in  the  urine  by  Brandt 
about  1650,  and  Gahn  and  Scheele  demonstrated  it  in 
bones  in  1768  and  1771. 

BORAX  was  introduced  into  commerce  by  the  Venetians 
in  the  seventeenth  century. 

SODIUM  POTASSIUM  TARTRATE.  Introduced  into 
medicine  by  Seignette,  an  apothecary  of  Rochelle  in 
1672.  It  is  still  known  as  “ Rochelle  Salts.” 

MAGNESIUM  SULPHATE.  Described  in  1694  by 
Nehemiah  Grew  in  a mineral  spring  at  Epsom, 
whence  the  name  “ Epsom  Salts.” 


Q 


241 


Chronology  of  Drugs 

MAGNESIA  CARBONATE.  First  introduced  as  a 
secret  remedy  under  the  name  of  “ Magnesia  alba  ” 
in  the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Tim 
method  of  preparation  was  published  by  Valentine  in 
1707- 

CINCHONA  or  PERUYIAN  BARK.  Introduced  into 
Europe  from  South  America  by  the  Countess  Cinchon 
in  1640. 


EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY. 

BORIC  ACID  was  made  and  introduced  by  Homberg  in 
1702,  and  known  as  “ Sal  sedativum  Hombergi.” 

THYMOL.  First  prepared  by  Neumann  in  1719. 

CHLORINE.  Discovered  by  Scheele  in  1744  and  known 
as  “ dephlogisticated  muriatic  acid.” 

PHOSPHORIC  ACID  was  introduced  by  Marggraf  in  1746. 

CALCINED  MAGNESIA.  Introduced  by  Black  in 
1755- 

ACETIC  A2THER.  First  prepared  by  Lauragois  in  1759. 

TARTARIC  ACID.  First  prepared  by  Scheele  in  1768. 

GLYCERIN.  Discovered  by  Scheele  when  preparing 
diachylon  plaster  in  1779  and  called  “the  sweet 
principle  of  oils.” 

LACTIC  ACID.  First  prepared  by  Scheele  in  1780. 

PRUSSIC  ACID.  Discovered  by  Scheele  in  1782. 

CITRIC  ACID.  First  prepared  by  Scheele  in  1784. 

BISMUTH  SUBNITRATE.  First  employed  by  Odier  in 
1786. 

GALLIC  ACID.  First  prepared  by  Scheele  in  1785. 

POTASSIUM  CHLORATE.  First  prepared  by  Berthollet 
in  1787  and  known  as  “ sel  de  Berthollet." 

CHROMIC  ACID.  Introduced  by  Vauquelin,  1797. 


242 


Chronology  of  Drugs 

NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

NARCOTINE.  Discovered  by  Derosne,  1803. 

MORPHINE.  Discovered  by  Serturner  in  1804. 
CANTHARIDIN.  Discovered^by  Robiquet,  1810. 

TANNIC  ACID.  First  prepared  by  Berzelius  ca.  1810. 
CERIUM.  Discovered  by  Klaproth  ca.  1810. 

IODINE.  First  extracted  from  seaweed  by  Courtois  in 
1811. 

NAPHTHALINE.  Discovered  by  Garden,  1816. 
EMETINE.  Discovered  by  Pelletier,  1816. 

HYDROGEN  PEROXIDE.  Discovered  by  Thenard,  1818. 

STRYCHNINE.  Discovered  by  ! Pelletier  and  Caventou, 
1818. 

YERATRINE.  Discovered  by  Meissner,  1818. 

BRUCIN.  Discovered  by  Pelletier  and  Caventou,  1819. 
PICROTOXINE.  Discovered  by  Van  Boullay,  1820. 

QUININE  ) 

CINCHONINE  I discovered  by  Pelletier  and  Caventou, 
1820. 

COLCHICINE  ) 

CAFFEINE.  Discovered  by  Runge,  1820. 

POTASSIUM  IODIDE.  Introduced  into  medicine  in  1821 
by  Coindet. 

THEBAINE.  Discovered  by  Pelletier,  1822  (?). 

IODOFORM.  First  prepared  by  Serullas  in  1822.  The 
first  synthetic  remedy  used  in  medicine  in  1837. 

BROMINE  ) 

POTASSIUM  BROMIDE  t D,scovered  by  Bakrd 
MECONIN.  Discovered  by  Dublanc,  1826. 

NICOTINE.  Discovered  by  Posselt  and  Reimann,  1828. 

QUINIDINE.  Discovered  by  Serturner,  1828,  and  Van 
Hejningen,  1849. 

243 


Chronology  of  Drugs 

SANTONIN.  Discovered  by  Kahlet  and  Alms  in  1830. 

ATROPINE.  First  isolated  by  Mein  in  1831. 

CHLOROFORM.  First  prepared  by  Guthrie,  of  America, 
in  1831  and  known  as  “chloric  ether.”  Named 
chloroform  by  Dumas  in  1834,  who  first  worked  out 
the  real  formula.  First  used  as  an  anaesthetic  in 
midwifery  by  Simpson  in  1847. 

CHLORAL  HYDRATE  Discovered  by  Liebig  in  1832 
and  introduced  into  medical  practice  by  Liebreich 
in  1869. 

CODEINE.  First  isolated  by  Robiquet  in  1832. 

NARCEINE.  Discovered  by  Pelletier,  1832. 

CREOSOTE.  Discovered  by  Reichenbach  in  1833. 

HYOSCYAMINE.  Discovered  by  Geiger  and  Hesse, 
1833- 

PHENOL  and  ANILINE.  Discovered  in  coal  tar  by 
Runge  in  1834. 

PEPSINE.  First  prepared  by  Schwann  in  1836. 

SALICYLIC  ACID.  Discovered  by  Kolbe  in  1839  and 
introduced  as  an  antiseptic  in  1874. 

SODIUM  BICARBONATE.  Introduced  by  Bullrich,  184c. 

THEOBROMINE.  Discovered  by  Woskresensky,  1841. 

CINCHONIDINE  SULPHATE.  Discovered  by  Winckler, 
1847;  Pasteur,  1853. 

PAPAVERINE.  Discovered  by  Merck,  1850. 

ALOIN.  Discovered  by  T.  and  H.  Smith,  1850. 

ACETANILIDE.  Discovered  by  Gerhardt  in  1853,  intro- 
duced into  medicine  in  1886. 

COCAINE.  Isolated  by  Gaedecke  in  1855  and  first  called 
ethroxylene.  Introduced  into  medicine  by  Roller, 
1884. 

PHYSOSTIGMINE.  Discovered  by  Jobst  and  Hesse  in 
1864. 


24+ 


Chronology  oj  Drugs 

RESORCIN.  First  prepared  by  Barth  and  Hiaswetz  in 
1864. 

CRYPTOPINE.  Discovered  by  T.  and  H.  Smith,  1864. 

FORMALDEHYDE.  Discovered  by  Hofmann  in  1867. 

APOMORPHINE.  Discovered  by  Mathieson  and  Wright, 
1869. 

GELSEMINIA.  Discovered  by  Wormley,  1870  ; Gerrard, 
1883. 

SODIUM  SALICYLATE.  First  prepared  syntheticly  by 
Kolbe  in  1875. 

PILOCARPINE.  Isolated  by  Gerrard  in  1875. 

GNOSCOPINE.  Discovered  by  T.  and  H.  Smith,  1878. 

SACCHARINE.  Discovered  by  Falberg  in  1878. 

PIPERINE.  Discovered  by  Oersted. 

NARCISSINE.  Discovered  by  Gerrard,  1878  ; Ewins, 
1910. 

NAPHTHOL.  Discovered  by  Gerrard,  1878;  Ewins, 
1881. 

HOMATROPINE.  Discovered  by  Ladenburg,  1879. 

XANTHALINE.  Discovered  by  T.  and  H.  Smith,  1881. 

ANTIPYRINE.  Discovered  by  Knorr  in  1884. 

PHENACETIN.  Discovered  1887. 

SULPHONAL.  Discovered  by  Baumann  1888. 

d’HYOSCY AMINE  D CAMPHORSULPHONATE.  Dis- 
covered by  Ladenburg  and  Hundt,  1889  ; Barrowcliff 
and  Tutin,  1909. 

CEPHAELINE  HYDROCHLORIDE.  Discovered  by  Paul 
and  Cownley,  1894. 

PSYCHOTRINE.  Discovered  by  Paul  and  Cownley,  1894. 

d’HYOSCINE  HYDROBROMIDE.  Discovered  by  Tutin, 
1900 ; King, 1919. 


245 


Chronology  of  Universities 


PRINCIPAL  UNIVERSITIES  AND  SCHOOLS 
OF  MEDICINE  WITH  THE  APPROXIMATE 
DATES  OF  THEIR  FOUNDATION. 

b.c.  522. — Athens,  Medical  School. 

a.d.  529. — Monte  Cassino,  monastery  founded. 

738.  -Montpellier,  School  of. 

858. — -Salerno,  School  of,  first  mentioned. 

980. — Cordova,  Spain. 

1025. — Paima,  University  of. 

1110-13. — Paris  and  Bologna,  Universities  founded. 

1155. — Rheims. 

1167. — Migration  of  students  from  Paris  to  Oxford  to 
form  a “ Studium  generale.” 

1205. — Vicenza,  University  founded  by  migration  of 
students  from  Bologna. 

1205-  Paris,  Faculty  of  Medicine. 

1209.  -Cambridge  inhabited  by  migration  of  students 
from  Oxford. 

1209. — Valencia,  Spain. 

1213. — Salerno,  University  founded  by  Frederick  II. 

1215. — Palencia,  University  of,  founded  by  Alfonso  VIII. 
1215. — Arezzo. 

1222. — Padua,  University  founded  by  migration  from 
Bologna. 

1225. — Messina,  University  founded  by  Frederick  II. 

246 


Chronology  of  Universities 

1225.— Naples,  University  founded  by  Frederick  II. 

1230.  — Salamanca. 

1231.  — Orleans. 

1233. — Toulouse,  France. 

1241. — Siena,  University  of. 

1243. — Salamanca,  University  of,  founded  by  Ferdinand  III 
of  Castille. 

1248. — Piacenza,  University  of,  founded  by  Papal  Charter. 
1250. — Valladolid,  Spain. 

1254.— Seville,  University  of,  founded  by  Alfonso  the 
Wise. 

1257. — Sorbonne,  founded  at  Paris. 

1266. — Perugia,  University  of,  founded. 

1290. — Lisbon,  Portugal. 

1300.  — Lerida,  University  founded  by  James  II  of  Spain. 
1303. — Avignon,  University  of,  chartered  by  Boniface  VIII. 
1303. — Rome,  University  of,  chartered  by  Boniface  VIII. 

1305.  — Orleans  and  Angers,  Universities  of,  chartered  by 

Clement  V. 

1306.  — Perugia. 

1309.— Coimbra,  Portugal,  University  of,  chartered  by 
King  Diniz  of  Portugal. 

1312. — Palermo,  University  of,  founded. 

1318.— Treviso,  University  of,  chartered  by  Frederick  the 
Fair. 

1320.— Florence,  University  of,  founded. 

1332. — Cahors,  University  of,  chartered  by  John  XXII. 

1338.  — Pisa,  University  of,  founded  by  emigration  of 

students. 

1339.  — Grenoble,  University  of,  chartered  by  Benedict  XII. 
1343.— Cracow,  Poland. 


247 


Chronology  of  Universities 

1347. — Prague,  University  of,  chartered  by  Clement  VI. 
1349. —Perpignan,  founded  by  Clement  VI. 

1354  — Huesca,  University  of,  founded  by  Pedro  IV. 

1361. — Pavia,  University  of,  chartered  by  Charles  IV. 

1354. — Vienna,  University  of,  founded  by  Duke  Rudolph 
IV. 

1364.  — Angers,  France. 

1365.  — Orange,  University  of,  founded  by  Charles  IV. 

1367.— Funfkirchen,  University  of,  founded  by  Louis  of 
Hungary 

1379. — Erfurt,  University  of,  re-chartered  by  Urban  VI. 
1336. — Heidelberg,  Germany. 

1388.  — Cologne,  University  of,  chartered  by  Urban  VI. 

1389.  — Budapest. 

1391.  —Ferrara,  University  of,  chartered  by  Boniface  IX. 

1402. — Wurtzburg,  University  of,  chartered  by  Boniface 

IX. 

1409. — Leipzig,  University  of,  chartered  by  Alexander  V. 
1409. — Aix,  France,  Studium  generale  at. 

1411.  — -St.  Andrews,  University  of,  founded  by  Bishop 

Henry  Wardlaw. 

1412.  — Turin,  University  of,  founded. 

1419. — -Rostock,  University  of,  chartered  by  Martin  V. 
1422. — Parma,  University  of,  founded. 

1426. — Louvain,  University  of,  founded. 

1431. — Poitiers,  University  of,  founded  by  Charles  VII. 
1433. — Florence,  Italy. 

1437. — Caen,  University  of,  chartered  by  Eugenius  IV. 
1441. — -Bordeaux,  University  of,  founded. 

1445. — Catania,  Sicily,  University  of,  chartered  by 
Alfonso  of  Aragon. 


248 


Chronology  of  Universities 

1450. — -Treves,  University  of,  founded. 

1450. — Barcelona,  University  of,  founded  by  Nicholas  V. 

1452.  — Valence,  University  of,  founded. 

1453.  — Glasgow,  University  of,  founded. 

1455.  — Freiburg,  University  of,  founded  by  Albrecht  VI. 

1456.  — Greifswald,  University  of,  founded  by  Calixtus  III. 

1459.  — Ingolstadt,  University  of,  founded  by  Pius  II. 

1460.  — Basel,  University  of,  founded. 

1463. — Nantes  chartered  by  Pius  II. 

1465. — Bourges. 

1485. — Budapest,  University  of,  founded  by  Paul  III. 

1474.  — Saragossa,  University  of,  founded. 

1475.  — Copenhagen,  Denmark,  chartered  by  Sixtus  IV. 

1476.  — Upsala,  Sweden. 

1477.  — Tubingen  and  Upsala,  Universities  of,  founded. 
1477. — Mayence. 

1494. — Aberdeen,  Scotland. 

1499. — Toledo,  Spain. 

1499. — Alcala,  University  of,  founded. 

1502. — Wittenberg. 

1504 — Santiago,  Spain,  University  of,  founded. 

1506. — Frankfort  on  the  Oder,  University  of,  founded  by 
Julius  II. 

1508. — Madrid,  University  of,  founded. 

1526.  — Nuremberg. 

1527.  — Marburg,  University  of,  founded  by  Philip, 

Landgrave  of  Hesse. 

1531. — Granada,  University  of,  founded  by  Clement  VII. 
1531. — Debreczen. 

1544. — Konigsberg. 

1548. — -Messina,  Sicily. 


249 


Chronology  of  Universities 


1551. — Mexico. 

1553. — Lima,  University  of,  founded. 

1558. — -Jena,  University  of,  chartered  and  opened  by 
Ferdinand  I. 

1560. — Douai  (Lille),  University  of,  founded. 

1565.  -Milan. 

1574.  — Oviedo. 

1575.  — Leyden  and  Helmstadt,  Universities  of,  founded. 
1575. — -Nuremberg  moved  to  Altdorf. 

1578.— Wilna. 

1581.  — Olmiitz. 

1582.  — Edinburgh,  University  of,  chartered  by  James  VI. 

1585.  — Francker. 

1586.  — Graz,  University  of,  founded. 

1591. — Dublin,  University,  founded. 

1596. — Barcelona,  Spain. 

1596. — Cagliari  (Sardinia). 

1600. — Harderwijk,  Holland. 

1614. — Groningen,  University  of,  founded. 

1616. — Paderborn,  University  of,  founded. 

1621.— Strassburg  and  Rinteln,  University  of,  founded  by 
Emperor  Ferdinand  II. 

1623. — Salzburg,  Austria,  University  of,  founded. 

1634. — Utrecht  and  Sassari,  Universities  of,  founded. 

1635.  — Budapesth. 

1636.  — Harvard,  University  of,  founded. 

1640. — Abo,  Finland. 

1648. — Bamberg,  University  of,  founded. 

1654.  — Herborn,  University  of,  founded. 

1655.  — Duisburg  and  Kiel,  Universities  of,  founded. 


250 


Chronology  of  Universities 

1666. — Lund,  University  of,  founded. 

4671. — Urbino,  University  of,  opened  as  “ Studium 
generate. ” 

1672. — Innsbruck,  University  of,  founded  by  Emperor 
Leopold  I. 

4683. — Modena  chartered. 

1693. — Halle,  University  of,  founded. 

1701.  — Yale  College  founded. 

1702.  — Breslau,  University  of,  founded  by  Leopold  I. 

1721.  — Caracas  (Venezuela),  University  of,  founded. 

1722.  — Dijon,  University  of,  founded. 

1727. — Camerino. 

1734. — Gottingen,  University  of,  founded  by  George  II. 

1740.— Pennsylvania,  University  of,  founded  as  “ College 
of  Philadelphia.” 

1743.— Erlangen,  University  of,  chartered  and  opened  by 
Karl  VII. 

1743.— S antiago,  Chile,  University  of,  founded. 

1746. — Princeton  College  founded. 

1754.  — Columbia,  New  York,  King’s  College,  founded. 

1755.  — Moscow,  University  of,  founded  by  the  Czarina 

Elizabeth. 

1768- — New  York  Medical  School  founded. 

1771- — Munster,  University  of,  inaugurated. 

1779. — Palermo,  Sicily,  University  of,  founded. 

1781.  — Georgetown,  D.C.,  University  of,  founded. 

1782.  — Harvard  University,  Medical  Department  of, 

founded. 

1784.  — Lemberg. 

1785. — Georgia,  U.S.A.,  University  of,  founded. 

1794. — Pesth,  Hungary,  founded  by  Paul  II. 


251 


Chronology  of  Universities 

1802. — Ingoldstadt  moved  to  Landshut. 

1804. — Charkovv. 

1806. — Lausanne. 

1808. — -Lyons,  University  of,  founded. 

1808.  — Clermont-Ferrand,  University  of,  founded. 

1809.  — Berlin,  University  of,  founded  by  Friedrich 

Wilhelm  III  of  Prussia. 

1811. — Christiania  founded. 

1811.  — Salerno  abolished. 

1812.  — Genoa,  University  of,  founded 

1816.  — Ghent,  University  of,  founded. 

1817.  — Liege,  University  of,  founded. 

1818.  — Bonn,  University  of,  re-established  by  Friedrich 

Wilhelm  III  of  Prussia. 

1819. - — St.  Petersburg,  University  of,  founded  by 

Alexander  I. 

1821. — McGill  College  and  University  founded  at 
Montreal. 

1825.  — Virginia,  University  of,  founded. 

1826.  — Munich,  University  of,  founded  by  removal  of 

Ingolstadt  from  Landshut. 

O 

1826  — Abo  moved  to  Helsingfors. 

1832. — Zurich  and  Kieff,  Universities  of,  founded. 

1834. — Berne,  University  of,  founded. 

1834. — Brussels,  University  of,  founded. 

1836.  — London,  University  of,  founded. 

1838. — Messina,  University  of,  founded. 

1849. — Wisconsin,  University  of,  founded. 

1854. — Marseilles,  University  of,  founded. 

1857. — Chicago,  University  of,  founded. 

1860. — Jassy,  Turkey. 


252 


Bibliography 

1860. — California,  University  of,  founded. 

1865. — Odessa,  University  of,  founded. 

1868. — Tokyo,  University  of 

1868. — Cornell,  New  York,  University  of,  founded. 

1875. — Czernowitz. 

1876- — Geneva,  University  of,  founded. 

1877. — Amsterdam,  University  of,  founded. 

1888.  — Tomsk,  University  of,  founded. 

1889.  — Friburg,  University  of,  founded. 

1897. — Kioto,  University  of,  founded. 

A SELECTION  OF  THE  CHIEF  WORKS  ON 
THE  HISTORY  OF  MEDICINE. 

BAAS,  JOH.  HERMANN.  “ Geschichte  der  Medicin,” 
1876.  Translated  into  English  by  Handerson,  1889. 

BOUCHUT.  “ Histoire  de  la  Medecine,”  1873. 

CHOULANT,  LUDWIG.  “ Geschichte  und  Bibliographie 
der  anatomischen  Abbildung,”  1852.  Translated  by 
Mortimer  Frank.  University  of  Chicago  Press,  1920. 

DAREMBERG,  CHARLES.  “ Histoire  des  Sciences 
Medicales,”  1870,  “ La  Medecine,  Histoire  et  Doc- 

trine,” 1865. 

ELOY.  “ D ictionnaire  Historique  de  la  Medecine,”  1778. 

FREIND,  JOHN.  “ History  of  Physick,”  1725. 

GARRISON,  H.  FIELDING.  “ Introduction  to  the  His- 
tory of  Medicine.”  Saunders. 

GURLT.  “ Geschichte  der  Chirurgie.”  Berlin,  1898. 

HAESER.  “ Lehrbuch  der  Geschichte  der  Medicin,” 
iS53- 

LE  CLERC.  “ Histoire  de  Medecine,”  1702.  Translated 
by  Drake,  1799. 


253 


Bibliography 

MEUNIER.  “ Histoire  de  la  Medecine,  1911. 

MOORE,  SIR  NORMAN.  “ History  of  the  Study  of 
Medicine  in  the  British  Isles.”  London,  1908. 

NEUBURGER.  “ Geschichte  der  Medicin,”  vol.  i.  Trans- 
lated by  Playfair.  Oxford  University  Press. 

NICAISE.  Editions  of  Guy  de  Chauliac,  1890,  and  Henri 
de  Mondeville,  1893,  and  Pierre  Franco,  1893. 

PAGEL.  “ Geschichte  der  Medicin,”  1898. 

PARK,  ROSWELL.  “ An  Epitome  of  the  History  of 
Medicine.”  Philadelphia,  1906. 

PAYNE.  “ English  Medicine  in  Anglo-Saxon  Times,” 
1904. 

PUSCHMANN.  “ Handbuch  der  Geschichte  der  Medicin,” 
3 vols.,  1902.  “ History  of  Medical  Education.” 

Translated  by  Hare,  1891. 

SPRENGEL.  “ Versuch  einer  pragmatischen  Geschichte 
der  Arzeikunde.”  1792. 

SUDHOFF.  “Geschichte  der  Anatomie  in  Mittelalter.” 
Leipzig,  1909.  “ Archiv  fur  Geschichte  der  Medicin,” 
“ Beitrage  zur  Geschichte  der  Chirurgie  in  Mittel- 
alter.” Leipzig,  1914.  “ Studien  zur  Geschichte  der 

Medicin.” 

WITHINGTON.  “ Medical  History  from  the  Earliest 
Times,”  1894. 


254 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

ABARIS,  696  12 

Abernethy,  John,  1764-1831  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  179 

Abti  ’All  Husayn  Ibn  ’Abdu’llah  Ibn  Sina,  980-1037  ...  ...  51 

Abu  Bakt  Muhammed  ibn  Zakariya  ar  Ray,  850-923  (Rhazes)  ...  49 

Abu  Jafar  Ahmed  Ben  Ibrahim  Al-Jezzar  (Algizar)  ...  ...  ...  47 

Abumeron,  1113-1162  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  52 

Achillini,  Alexander,  1463-1525  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  71 

Actuarius,  Johannes,  1280  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  60 

Adams,  Francis,  1796-1861  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  199 

Adapa,  3500  B.c.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  2 

Addison,  Thomas,  1793-1860  196 

Aegimios  of  Elis,  470  B.c.  ...  ..  ...  ...  ...  ...  16 

Aesculapius,  291  B.c.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  12 

Aetius  of  Amida,  502-575  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  42 

Agathinos,  Claudius,  of  Sparta,  90  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  35 

Agnivesha...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  7 

Agricola,  Georg,  1490-1555  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  77 

Ahrun,  610-641  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  44 

Ai  Nyama,  500  b.c.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  8 

Akenside,  Mark,  1721-1770  158 

Akron  of  Agrigentum,  400  B.C ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  18 

Alberti,  Salomon,  1540-1600  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  100 

Albertus  Magnus,  1 193-1280  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  56 

Albinus,  Bernhard  Siegfried,  1697-1770  ...  ...  ...  ...  149 

Albucasis,  936-1013  ...  ...  ...  ..  ...  ...  . . 50 

Alcock,  Nathan,  1707-1779  ..  152 

Alcmaeon  of  Crotona,  500  B.C.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  14 

Aldrovandi,  Ulysses,  1522-1605  ...  ...  ...  ...  93 

Alexander  Aphrodisiensis,  200...  ...  ...  ...  ...  39 

Alexander  Philalethes,  A. D.  1 ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  25 


255 


Index 


Alexander  of  Tralles,  525-605  ... 

Algizar 
A1  Hazen  ... 

Ali,  ben  Isa  (Je.'us  Haly)  1050  ... 

Ali  Ibn  Abbas  Almajusi,  994  ... 

Ali,  Ibn  Rabban,  850 

Alkindus,  813-873  

Alpino,  Prosper,  1553-1617  

Ammonius,  Liihotomus,  283-247  B.C. 

Ampbiaraos 

Amynos 

Anagnostakis,  Andreas,  1826-1898 
Anaxagoras  of  Clazomene,  500-428  B.c. 
Anaximander  of  Miletus,  61 1 B.c. 

Andreas  of  Carystos 
Andr5machos,  60 
Antyllus,  250 
Apollo 

Apollodorus,  300  B.C. 

Apollonios 

Apollonios  Biblas,  180-160  B.c. 

Apollonios  Ciiiensis,  60  B.c. 

Apollonios  the  Empiric,  200  B.c. 
Apollonios  Mus,  30  B.C.... 

Apollonios  of  Memphis,  250  B.c. 
Apollonios  the  Pneumatist 
Apollophanes  of  Seleucia 
Appuleius  Barbarus,  Lucius,  400 
Arantius,  Julius  Caesar,  1530-1589 
Arcaeus,  1493-1571 
Archagathos,  219  B.C.  ... 

Archelaos  of  Athens,  480  B.c.  ... 

Archigenes,  48-1 17 

Arculanus  of  Verona,  d.  1484  ... 

Arderne,  John,  1307.1380 
Arduino  of  Venice,  1430 
Aretaios  30-QO  ... 

Argelata,  Petrus  ab.  1400 

Argenterio,  Giovanni,  of  Castelnuovo  151 


256 


Index 


PAGE 

Aristogenes  of  Cnidos  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  18 

Aristoxenos,  50  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ._.  ...  26 

Aristotle,  384-322  B.C 22 

Armstrong,  George,  d.  1781  ...  ...  ...  ...  ..  ...  1 57 

Arnold  of  Villanova,  1245-1310  ...  ...  ...  ..  ...  59 

Artemis  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  10 

Asclepiades  of  Bithynia,  100  B.C.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  30 

Asclepiodotus,  490  ...  3 ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  42 

Aselli,  Gasparo,  1581-1626  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  no 

Asklepios,  1300  B.C.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  10 

Astruc,  Jean,  1684-1766...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  147 

Athenaius,  69  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  33 

Atreya  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  7 

Attalos  II,  200-138  B.C 29 

Augustine,  1520  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  91 

Avenzoar,  1113-1162  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  52 

Averroes,  1126-1198  53 

Avicenna,  980-1037  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ....  51 

Avogadro,  Amedeo,  1776-1856...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ..  187 

Baal  Zebal  8 

Babington,  Benjamin  Guy,  1794-1866  ...  ...  ...  ...  197 

Bachtischua,  Dschordschis,  765  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  45 

Bacon,  Roger,  1214-1292  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  58 

Baer,  Karl  Ernest,  von,  1793-1876  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  196 

Baglivi,  Giorgio,  1668-1707  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  141 

Baillie,  Matthew,  1761-1823  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  178 

Baillif,  Roch  le,  de  la  Riviere,  1533-1610  ...  ...  ...  ...  96 

Baillou  Guillaume,  1536-1614  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  97 

Bakcheios  of  Tanagra  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  26 

Banister,  John,  1533-1610  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  96 

Barth,  Joseph,  1745-1818  ...  ...  ...  ...  171 

Bartholinus,  Caspar,  b.  1654  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  117 

Bartholinus,  Thomas,  1616-1680  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  117 

Bartisch,  Georg,  1535-1606  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  97 

Bassi,  Laura  Maria  Caterina,  171 1-1778  ...  ...  ...  ...  155 

Baudelocque,  Jean  Louis,  1746-1810  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  171 

Bauhine,  Gaspar,  1560-1624  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  104 

Baumann,  Jacob,  1521-1580  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  92 

Bayrlandt,  Ortolff  von,  1450  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  68 


R 


257 


Index 


Bazin,  Antoine  Pierre  Ernest,  1807-1878 

Beaumont,  William,  1785-1853 

Bell,  Alexander  Graham,  1847-1922 
Bell,  Charles,  1774-1842 
Bell,  Jacob,  1810-1859  ... 

Bell,  John,  1763-1820 

Bellini,  Laurence,  1643-1703  ... 

Belon,  Pierre,  1518-1564 
Ben  Bachtischua 
Benedetti,  Alexander,  1460-1525 
Bennett,  John  Hughes,  1812-1875 
Berengarius  of  Carpi  Giacomo,  1480-1550 

Bertin,  Exupere  Joseph,  1712-1781  

Bernard,  Charles,  1650-1711 

Bernard,  Claude,  1814-1878 

Berzelius,  Jons  Jacob,  1779-1848 

Bichat,  Marie  Franpois  Xavier,  1771-1802 

Bidloo,  Gottfried,  1649-1713 

Bigelow,  Henry  Jacob,  1818-1892 

Biheron,  1730-1785  

Billings,  John  Shaw,  1838-1913 
Biondo,  Michael  Angelo,  1497-1565 

Black,  Joseph,  1728-1799...  

Blackmore,  Sir  Richard,  1653-1729 
Bloch,  Iwan,  1872-1922... 

Blumenbach,  Johann  Friedrich,  1752-1840 
Bock,  Hieronymus,  1498-1560  ... 

Boe,  Francois  de  la,  1614-1672  .. 

Boerhaave,  Hermann,  1668-1738 
Boghurst,  William,  1631-1685  ... 

Boivin,  Marie  Anne  Victoire  Gillain,  1773-1841 
Boll,  Franz  Christian,  1849-1879 
Bolognini,  Angelo,  1500  .. 

Bona  Dea  ... 

Bonetus,  Theophilus,  1620-1689 
Bonnet,  Charles,  1720-1793 
Bontius,  Jacobus,  1592-1631  ...  ... 

Boorde,  Andrew,  1490-1549 
Bordeu,  Theophile  de,  1722-1776 
Borelli,  Giovanni  Alfonso,  1608-1679 

258 


PAGE 

208 

• 191 
232 

. 186 

210 
. 179 

• 131 

• 90 
45 

70 
21  I 

74 

■ I5S 

• 135 

■ 213 

• 189  , 

. 182 

• 134 

. 218 

. 162 

227 
80 
. 161 

■ 137 
. 236 

• 174 

. 80 

. 116 

. 142 

• 124 
. 185 

• 233 

• 7S 
12 

. 1 18 

. 15S 

1 12 
76 

• 159 

■ i'5 


Index 


PAGE 

Borri,  Giuseppe  Francisco,  1625-1695  ...  ...  ...  ...  121 

Botallo,  Leonardo,  ca.  1530  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  81 

Bottoni,  Albertino,  1596...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  103 

Bouillaud,  Jean  Baptiste,  1797-1891  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  201 

Bourgeoise,  Louise,  1563-1636  ...  ...  ...  ...  . 105 

Boursier  du  Coudray,  A.  le,  1712-1789  ...  ...  ...  ...  156 

Bowditch,  Henry  Pickering,  1840-191 1 ...  ...  22S 

Bowman,  Sir  William,  1816-1892  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  216 

Boyle,  Robert,  1627-1691  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  122 

Braid,  James,  1795-1860.  ...  198 

Branca  of  Catania,  1450...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ..  66 

Brassavola,  Antonio  Musa,  1500-1555...  ...  ...  81 

Breschet,  Gilbert,  1784-1845  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  191 

Brewster,  Sir  David,  1781-1868  ...  ...  ...  ...  189 

Briggs,  William,  1641-1704  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  131 

Bright,  Richard,  1789-1858  ...  ...  ...  193 

Bright,  Timothy,  1550-1616  101 

Brisseau,  Pierre,  1631-1717  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  125 

Brissot,  Pierre,  1478-1522  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  72 

Broca,  Peter  Paul,  1824-1881 ...  ...  222 

Brodie,  Sir  Benjamin  Collins,  1783-1862  ...  ...  ...  ...  191 

Broussais,  Francois  Joseph  Victor,  1772-1838  ...  ...  ...  184 

Brown,  John,  1735-1788  165 

Browne,  John,  1642-1700  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  131 

Browne,  Sir  Thomas,  1605-1682  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  1 1 5 

Brown-Sequard,  Edouard,  1817-1894  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  217 

Brunfels,  Otto,  1464-1534  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  71 

Bruno  of  Longoburgo,  1252  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  59 

Brunner,  Johann  Conrad,  1653-1727  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  137 

Buffon,  Louis  Le  Clerc,  1707-1788  ...  ...  152 

Bullein,  William,  d.  1576  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  90 

Burdach,  Charles  Frederick,  1776-1847  ...  ...  ...  ...  187 

Butler,  Wiiliam,  1534-1617  97 

Butts,  Sir  William,  d.  1545  ...  ...  ...  75 

Cadwalader,  Thomas,  1708-1779  153 

Caelius  Aurelianus,  400  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  41 

Caesalpinus,  Andreas,  1524-1603  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  93 

Caius,  John,  1510-1573 86 

Caldwell,  Richard,  1505-1584  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  83 


259 


Index 


PAGE 

Caldani,  Leopold  Marco  Antonio,  1725-1813  ...  ...  ...  160 

Callisthenes  of  Olynthos ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  23 

Camper,  Peter,  1722-1789  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  159 

Canano,  Gianbattista,  1515-1579  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  88 

Cardanus,  Hieronymus,  of  Pavia,  1501-1576...  ...  ...  ...  83 

Carroll,  James,  1854-1907  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  234 

Casserius,  Julius  (Placenterius),  1561-1616  ...  ...  ...  ...  104 

Cassius,  Felix,  130  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  38 

Cavendish,  Henry,  1731-1810 163 

Celsus,  Aurelianus  Cornelius,  25  B.C.-50  A. D.  ...  ...  ...  31 

Chadwick,  Sir  Edwin,  1800-1890  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  203 

Chamberlen  Family,  1569-1728  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  106 

Chambre,  John,  1472-1549  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  72 

Chanca,  Diego  Alvarez,  of  Seville,  1494  ...  ...  ...  ...  72 

Charaka,  600  B.C.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  8 

Charcot,  Jean-Martin,  1825-1893  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  222 

Chauliac,  Guy  de,  1298-1368  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  61 

Cheiron  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  9 

Cheselden,  William,  1688-1752...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  148 

Chesne,  Joseph  du,  1546-1609  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  101 

Cheyne,  George,  1671-1743  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  142 

Cheyne,  John,  1777-1836  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  188 

Chopart,  Francis,  1750-1795  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  1 73 

Christison,  Sir  Robert,  1797-1882  ...  ...  ...  ...  ..  201 

Chrysippos,  300  B.C.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  18 

Clarke,  Jacob  Augustus  Lockhart,  1816-1880...  ...  ...  ...  216 

Clearchos  of  Soloi  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  23 

Clerc,  Louis  le  (Buffon),  1707-1788  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  152 

Clift,  William,  1775-1849  187 

Cloquet,  Jules  German,  1790-1883  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  194 

Clowes,  William,  1540-1604  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  •••  97 

Clusius,  Carolus,  1526-1609  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  94 

Cockburn,  William,  1696  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  119 

Cohnheim,  Julius  Friedrich,  1839-1884  ...  ...  ...  ...  228 

Colbatch,  John,  1695  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  •••  135 

Cole,  William,  1635-1716  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  •••  127 

Cole,  William,  of  Bristol,  1675...  ...  ...  ...  ...  •••  144 

Colles,  Abraham,  1775-1843  ...  ...  ...  ...  1S6 

Collins,  Samuel,  1618-1710  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  •••  118 

Columbus,  Realdus,  1516-1559 ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  S9 


260 


Index 


PAGE 

Constantine  the  African,  1010-1087  52 

Cooper,  Sir  Astley  Paston,  1766-1841  ...  ...  ...  ...  1S1 

Cordus,  Valerius,  1515-1544  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  88 

Corrigan,  Sir  Dominic,  1802-1880  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  204 

Cortesi,  Giovanni  Baptista,  1554-1636...  ...  ...  ...  ...  102 

Cosmas,  St.,  303  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  40 

Cowper,  William,  1666-1709  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  141 

Coyter,  Volcher,  1534-1600  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  . 96 

Crollius,  Oswald,  1560-1609  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  no 

Crookes,  Sir  William,  1832-1919  ...  226 

Croone,  William,  1633-1684  ...  127 

Cruikshank,  William  Cumberland,  1745-1800  ...  ...  ...  17° 

Ctesias  of  Cnidos,  400  B.C.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  17 

Cullen,  William,  1710-1790  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  153 

Culpepper,  Nicholas,  1616-1654  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  117 

Currie,  James,  1756-1805  176 

Cuvier,  Georges  Christian  Leopold  Dagobert,  1789-1832  ...  ...  193 

Cyprianus,  Abraham,  1656-1724  ...  ...  ...  138 

D’Agoty,  Jacques  Gautier,  1771-1786  153 

Dalton,  John,  1766-1844...  ...  ...  ...  . ...  ...  180 

Damianus,  St.,  303  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  40 

Damocrates,  26  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ..  ...  ...  31 

Daremberg,  Charles  Victor,  1816-1872  ...  ...  ...  ...  215 

Darwin,  Charles,  1809-1882  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  208 

Darwin,  Erasmus,  1731-1802  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  163 

Daviel,  Jacques,  1693-1762  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  148 

D’ Avila,  Luis  Lobera,  1551  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  73 

Davy,  Sir  Humphry,  1778-1829  ...  ...  ...  ...  188 

Dea  Febris  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  12 

DeaSalus...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  12 

Deane,  Edmund,  1572-1640  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  . . 107 

Deiters,  Otto  Frederick  Karl,  1834-1863  ...  ...  ...  ...  227 

Demetrius  of  Apameia,  250  B.c.  ...  ...  ..  ...  ...  25 

Democedes,  500  B.c.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ..  ...  15 

Democritus  of  Abdera,  494-404  B.C.  ...  ...  ...  ...  16 

Demosthenes  the  Oculist  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  26 

Demosthenes  of  Massilia ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  26 

Denis,  Jean  Baptiste,  1620-1704  ...  118 

Denman,  Thomas,  1733-1816  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  164 


261 


Index 


Descemet,  Jean,  1732-1810  

PAGE 

164 

Deventer,  Hendrik  van,  1651-1724 

136 

Dexippus,  370  B.C. 

20 

Dhanwantari 

6 

Diancecht,  B.c.  480 

12 

Dieuches  ... 

21 

Dioclesian,  350  b.c. 

20 

Diogenes  of  Apollonia,  430  b.c. 

l6 

Diokles  of  Carystos,  350  B.C.  ... 

20 

Diokles  of  Euboea,  350  B.c. 

20 

Dionis,  Pierre,  d.  1718  ... 

138 

Dioscorides,  Pedanius  of  Anzaba,  40-90  

33 

Dioxippos  of  Cos,  370  B.c. 

20 

Dodart,  Denys,  1634-1707 

127 

Dodoens,  Rembert,  1517-1585 

90 

Donders,  Frans  Cornells,  1818-1889  ... 

...  218 

Douglas,  James,  1675-1742 

145 

Douglas,  John,  d.  1759  ... 

148 

Dover,  Thomas,  1664-1742 

140 

Dracon,  380  B.c. 

20 

Drake,  Daniel,  1785-1852 

191 

Dubois,  Jacques,  1478-1555  ...  

73 

DuChesne,  Joseph,  1546-1609  ... 

IOl 

Duchenne,  Guillaume  Benjamin  Amand,  1806-1875... 

208 

DuCoudray,  Angelique  Marguerite,  1712-1789 

156 

Duges,  Antoine  Louis,  1797-1838 

200 

Dumas,  Jean  Baptiste  Andre,  1800-1884 

202 

Dupuytren,  Guillaume,  1777-1835 

187 

Duverney,  Joseph  G.,  1648-1730 

134 

Ea,  5000  B.C 

1 

Earle,  Sir  James,  1755-1817 

175 

Ehrlich,  Paul,  1854-1915  

235 

Eir 

9 

El  Harits  ben  Kalada,  600 

43 

Ellil,  3500  b.c 

3 

Elliotson,  John,  1791-1868  

195 

Empedocles,  504-443  B.C. 

15 

Ent,  Sir  George,  1604-1689 

1 14 

Erasistratus  of  Julis,  300-245  B.c. 

24 

262 


Index 


PAGE 

Esmun  ...  ..  ...  ...  ..  ...  ...  ...  ...  8 

Estienne,  Charles,  1503-1564 ...  ...  ...  83 

Eudemos,  290  b.c.  ...  ...  ..  ...  ...  ...  ..  22 

Eudoxus  of  Cnidos,  408-355  B.C.  ...  ...  ...  ..  ...  17 

Euenor  of  Argos,  388  B.c.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  19 

Eupator,  132-63  B.C 29 

Eustachius,  Bartolommeus,  1520-1574...  ...  ...  ...  ...  91 

Euryphon  of  Cnidos  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  17 

Fabricujs  ab  Aquapendente,  Hieronymus,  1537-1619  ...  ...  98 

Fabricius  Flildanus,  1560-1624 ...  ...  ...  ...  104 

Fassuis,  1528-1591  ...  ...  94 

Falloppius,  Gabrielle,  1523-1562  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  93 

Fahrenheit,  Gabriel  Daniel,  1686-1736  ...  ...  ...  ...  147 

Faraday,  Michael,  1791-18 67  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  195 

Fergusson,  Sir  William,  1808-1877  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  208 

Fernandez,  Gonzalo,  1510  ...  ...  ...  ...  ..  ...  79 

Fernelius,  Jean  Francois,  1497-1558  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  80 

Finch,  Sir  John,  1626-1682  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  121 

Finsen,  Niels,  1860-1904  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  235 

Fiorravanti,  Leonardo,  1564  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  91 

Fletcher,  Robert,  1823-1912  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  228 

Floyer,  Sir  John,  1649-1734  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  134 

Fludd,  Robert  (Fluctibus),  1574-1637...  ...  ...  ...  ...  108 

Foes,  Fsesius,  1528-1591...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  94 

Fontana,  Abbe  Felix,  1730-1805  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  162 

Forestus,  Petrus,  1522-1597  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  92 

Foster,  Sir  Michael,  1836-1907  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  227 

Fothergill,  John,  1712-1780  ...  155 

Fowler,  Thomas,  1736-1801  ...  ..  ...  ...  ...  ...  166 

Fracastorius,  Gitolamo,  1484-1553  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  75 

Francisco  Arceo,  1493-1571  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  79 

Franco,  Pierre,  1505-1551  ..  ...  ...  ...  84 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  1706-1790...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  151 

Freind,  John,  1675-1728  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  144 

Freyer,  Sir  Peter  J.,  1851-1920  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  234 

Fuchs,  Leonhard,  1501-1566  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  82 

Gaddesden,  John,  1280-1361 64 

Gaius  of  Neapolis.. . ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  26 

263 


Index 


PAGE 

Gale,  Thomas,  1507-1587  ...  ...  84 

Galen,  Claudius,  130-200  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  38 

Galvani,  Aloysius,  1737-1798 166 

Gariopontus,  d.  1050  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  52 

Garth,  Sir  Samuel,  1661-1719  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  140 

Gartner,  Gustav,  1790-1834  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  194 

Gasser,  John  Laurence,  d.  1765  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  157 

Gaub,  Hieronymus  David,  1705-1780  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  151 

Gay-Lussac,  Joseph  Louis,  1778-1850 188 

Geber,  702-765 48 

Geminus,  Thomas,  1540-1560 87 

Genga,  Bernardine,  1655-1734 ...  138 

Geoffroy,  Etienne  St.  Hilaire,  1771-1844  ...  ...  ...  ...  183 

Gerard  of  Cremona,  1114-1187...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  53 

Gerhard,  William  Wood,  1809-1872  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  208 

Gersdorfif,  Hans  von,  fl.  1500  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  69 

Gesner,  Conrad,  1516-1565  89 

Giacomini,  Carlo,  1821-1898  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  221 

Gibson,  Thomas,  ca.  1562  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  91 

Gibson,  Thomas,  1647-1722  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  133 

Giflfard,  William,  1734  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  165 

Gigliani,  Alessandra,  1307-1326  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  63 

Gilbert,  William,  1540-1603  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  100 

Gilbertus  Anglicus,  1180-1250  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  55 

Gimbernat,  Antonio  de,  1762  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  162 

Girald^s,  Joachim  Albin  Cardozo  Cazado,  1808-1875  ...  ...  208 

Glaser,  Jean  Henri,  1629-1675.-.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  124 

Glaucias  of  Taros,  180  B.C.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  28 

Glisson,  Francis,  1597-1677  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  113 

Godman,  John  D.,  1794-1830  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  197 

Goethe,  Johann  Wolfgang  von,  1749-1832  ...  ...  ...  ...  172 

Goldsmith,  Oliver,  1728-1774  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  160 

Goodsir,  Sir  John,  1814-1867  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  213 

Gordon,  Bernard,  1300  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  63 

Gorgas,  William  C.,  1854-1920...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  235 

Goulard,  Thomas,  d.  1784  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  151 

Goulston,  Theodore,  1572-1632  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  107 

Gourmelin,  Etienne,  1593  ...  ...  ...  ..  ...  ...  102 

Gowers,  Sir  William  Richard,  1845-1915  ..  ...  ...  ...  230 

Graaf,  Regner  de,  1641-1673  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  130 

264 


Index 


Graefe,  Albrecht  von,  1828-1870 

PAGE 
...  224 

Grainger,  Edward,  1797-1824  ... 

199 

Grassi,  Benevenuto,  1474 

67 

Graves,  Robert  James,  1797-1853 

. . 300 

Greenfield,  John,  1670  ... 

119 

Greenhill,  William  Alexander,  1814-1894 

214 

Gregory,  James,  1758-1822 

177 

Grew,  Nehemiah,  1628-1711 

123 

Gross,  Samuel  David,  1805-1884 

207 

Guainierio,  Antonio,  fl.  1447 

65 

Guido  Guidi,  1500-1569  

82 

Guillemeau,  Jacques,  1550-1613 

101 

Guillotine,  Joseph  Ignace,  1738-1814 

166 

Guinterius,  Johannes,  1487-1574 

76 

Gula,  3,000  b.c 

3 

Gull,  Sir  William,  1816-1890 

...  216 

Guthrie,  George  James,  1785-1856 

191 

Guy  de  Chauliac,  1298-1368  

61 

Guy,  Thomas,  1643-1724 

132 

Haeckel,  Ernst  Heinrich,  1834-1919  

226 

Haen,  Anton  de,  1704-1776 

iSi 

Hahnemann,  Samuel  Christian  Friedrich,  1755-1843... 

176 

Halford,  Sir  Henry,  1766-1844  ... 

...  180 

Hall,  John,  1575-1635 

108 

Hall,  Marshall,  1790-1857 

194 

Halle,  John,  1529-1568  ..  

94 

Haller,  Albrecht  von,  1708-1777 

IS2 

Halsted,  William  Stewart,  1852-1922  ... 

234 

Haly  Abbas,  994  ... 

50 

Harney,  Baldwin,  1568-1640 

106 

Hamey,  Baldwin,  1600-1676 

114 

Harita 

7 

Harris,  Walter,  1647-1732 

133 

Harvey,  William,  1578-1657 

...  109 

Harvey,  Gideon,  1640-1700 

130 

Hasner,  Josef  Ritter  von  Artha,  1819-1892 

...  220 

Hastings,  Sir  Charles,  1794-1866 

198 

Havers,  Clopton,  1660-1702 

138 

Heberden,  William,  1710-1801  ... 

154 

265 


Index 


Hebra,  Feidinand  von,  1816-1880 
Heister,  Laurence,  1683-1758  ... 

Heliodorus,  75 

Helmholtz,  Herman  von,  1821-1894  ... 

Helmont,  Johanne  Baptist  van,  1577-1644 
Henle,  Friedrich  Gustav  Jacob,  1809-1896  .. 

Henri  de  Mondeville,  1260-1320 

Henschel,  August  Wilhelm  Edward  Theodore,  1790 

Herennius  Philo  of  Tarsus,  20 

Heracleides  of  Erythrea,  30  B.C.  

Heracleides  of  Tarentum  

Hermes  Trismegistos 
Herodicos  ... 

Herodotus,  100 

Herophilos  of  Chalcedon,  300  B.c. 

Hesselbach,  Franz  Caspar,  1759-1816 

Hesychios  of  Damascus,  430 
Heurne,  Jan  van,  1543-1601 
Hewson,  William,  1739-1774  '... 

Hey,  William,  1736-1819 
Hickman,  Henry  Hill,  1800-1829 
Hieronymus  of  Brunschweig,  1450-1533 
Highmore,  Nathaniel,  1613-1685 
Hikesios  of  Smyrna  60  ... 

Hilton,  John,  1804-1878... 

Hippocrates,  460-377  B.C. 

Hippon 

Hirsch,  August,  1817-1894 
Hodges,  Nathaniel,  1629-1688 
Hodgkin,  Thomas,  1797-1866 
Hoffman,  Friedrich,  1660-1742 
Hohenheim,  Theophrastus  Bombast  von  (Paracelsus 
Holboken,  Nicolaus,  1632-1678 
Holmes,  Oliver  Wendell,  1809-1894  ... 

Holmgren,  Alarik  Frithiof,  1831-1897 
Home,  Sir  Everard,  1763-1832... 

Honein  ben  Ishak,  809-873 

Hoppe-Seyler,  Ernest  Felix  Immanuel,  1825-1895 
Horner,  William  Edmund,  1793-1853... 

Houston,  Robert,  1734  ... 


856 


H93 


541 


PAGE 

215 

146 

37 

221 

108 

209 

62 

194 

36 

26 
29 

4 

13 

36 

24 

178 
42 

100 

167 

166 

201 

68 

ii5 

27 
206 

19 

16 

217 

123 

201 

139 

• 78 

126 
. 209 

226 

179 
46 

■ 223 

. 196 

• 143 


266 


Index 


PAGE 

Houston,  John,  1802-1845 

204 

Hua  T’O,  200 

6 

Huguier,  Peter  Charles,  1804-1873 

205 

Humboldt,  Friedrich  Heinrich  Alexander  Freiherr  von, 

1769-1859 

181 

Hundt,  Magnus,  1449-1519 

81 

Hunter,  William,  1718-1783 

158 

Hunter,  John,  1728-1793 

161 

Huschke,  Emile,  1797-1858 

200 

Huxham,  John,  1694-1768 

148 

Huxley,  Thomas  Henry,  1825-1895 

222 

Hygieia 

1 1 

Ibn  a’l  Baytar  of  Malaga  ...  ..  

49 

I-em-Hetep,  3500  b.c.  ... 

4 

Ikkos  of  Tarentum 

13 

Ingrassias,  Giovanni  Filippo,  1510-1580 

86 

Isaac  Judaeus,  830-940  ... 

47 

Ishak  ben  Soleiman,  830-940  ... 

47 

Ixtlilton 

9 

1 

Jabir  Ibn  Hayyan  (Geber),  702-765..  

48 

Jackson,  John  Hughlings,  1834-1911  ... 

227 

Jacobsen,  Louis  Levin,  1783-1843 

190 

Jacobus  Psycochristus,  460 

42 

Jamatus,  1230 

57 

Jamerius,  Johannes,  1230 

57 

James,  Robert,  1703-1776 

250 

Jenner,  Edward,  1749-1823 

173 

Jerome  of  Brunswick,  1450-1533 

68 

Jesus  Haly,  1050  ... 

... 

52 

Joannes  Hispanus  (John  of  Toledo),  1100 

53 

Joannitius,  809-873 

46 

John  of  Arderne,  1307-1380 

64 

Johnson,  Thomas,  1600-1644 

113 

Joubert,  Laurentius,  1529-1583... 

94 

Joyliffe,  George,  1631-1658 

125 

Jung-Stilling,  J.  H.,  1740-1817 

167 

Junius,  Hadrian,  1511-1575 

87 

267 


Kalada,  El  Haritz  Ben,  600 


43 


Index 


PAGE 


Keill,  James,  1673-1719 

143 

Kempf,  Johann,  1726-1787  

...  160 

Kenyia,  Salvatore  de,  1800-1872  

...  202 

Kerckring,  Thomas  Theodore,  1640-1693 

...  129 

Ketham,  Johannes  de,  1480  ...  ...  . . 

...  74 

Keys,  John  (Caius),  1510-1573  ... 

...  86 

Kircher,  Athanasius,  1602-1680 

...  114 

Koch,  Robert,  1843-1910  ...  

...  229 

Koraes,  Adamantios,  1748-1833 

...  172 

Kowalevsky,  Alexander,  1846-1901 

...  231 

Kraftheim,  Johann  Crato  von,  1519-1586 

...  90 

Kratzenstein,  Christopher  Gottlob,  1723-1795 

- 159 

Kiichenmeister,  Gottlieb  Friedrich  Heinrich,  1821 

-1890 

...  220 

Kymer,  Gilbert,  d.  1463... 

...  67 

Laennec,  Rene  Theodore  Hyacynths,  1781- 

826 

...  189 

Lamarck,  Jean  Baptiste  de,  1744-1829 

...  170 

Lancisi,  John  Maria,  1654-1720 

...  137 

Lanfranc  of  Milan,  d.  1315 

61 

Lapeyronie,  Franpois  de,  1678-1747  

...  145 

Larrey,  Dominique  Jean,  1766-1842  ... 

...  180 

Laurens,  Andreas  du,  1558-1609 

...  103 

Laurent  Joubert  1529-1583 

...  94 

Laveran,  Charles  Louis  Alphonse,  1845-1922... 

• 230 

Lavoisier,  Antoine  Laurent,  1743-1794 

...  169 

Leeuwenhoeck,  Anton  van,  1632-1723 

...  126 

Leonardo  da  Vinci,  1452-1519  ... 

...  69 

Leonicenus,  Nicholas,  1428-1524 

...  67 

Leon,  Pedro  Ponce  de,  1520-1584 

...  92 

Leonidas  of  Alexandria,  200 

...  36 

Lettsom,  John  Coakley,  1744-1815  

169 

Levret,  Andre,  1703-1780  

...  151 

Lieberkiihn,  Johann  Nathaniel,  1711-1746  ... 

...  154 

Liebig,  Justus  von,  1803-1873  ... 

...  205 

Linacre,  Thomas,  1460-1524 

...  70 

Linnaeus,  Charles,  I7I7_I783  • •• 

...  157 

Lisfranc,  Thomas,  1790-1847 

...  194 

Lister,  Lord  (Joseph),  1827-1912  

...  224 

Liston,  Robert,  1794-1847  

...  197 

Littre,  Alexis,  1698-1726  

...  204 

268 


Index 


PAGE 

Littre,  Maximilien  Paul  Emile,  1801-1881  ...  ...  ...  ...  204 

Livingstone,  David,  1813-1873 212 

Lizars,  John,  1783-1860...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  190 

Lobelius,  Matthaeus,  1538-1616  ...  ...  99 

Locke,  John,  1632-1704 ...  ...  125 

Lom,  Joost  van,  1560  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  76 

Long,  Crawford  Williamson,  fl.  1840  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  214 

Longmore,  Sir  Thomas,  1816  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  216 

Lonicerus,  Adam,  1528-1586  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ..  94 

Lopez  de  Villalobos,  Francisco,  1473-1560  ...  ...  ...  ...  72 

Louis,  Pierre  Charles  Alexandre,  1787-1872  ...  ...  ...  ...  192 

Lowdham.  R.,  1679  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  135 

Lowe,  Peter,  1550-1610  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  102 

Lower,  Richard,  1631-1691  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  125 

Lucius  Appuleius,  400  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  41 

Ludwig,  Karl  Wilhelm,  1816-1895  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  216 

Lully,  Raymond,  1235-1312  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  58 

Luschka,  Hubert  von,  1820-1875  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  220 

Lusitanus,  Amatus,  1511-1568  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  87 

Macartney,  James,  1770-1843  ...  182 

Machaon.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  10 

Magati,  Cesare,  1579-1647  ...  no 

Magendie,  Frangois,  1782-1855  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  190 

Maggi,  Bartolommeo,  1516-1552  ...  ...  ...  ..  ...  89 

Magnus,  75  34 

Maimonides,  1135-1204...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  54 

Malgaigne,  Joseph  Frangois,  1806-1865  ...  ...  ...  ...  207 

Malpighi,  Marcello,  1628-1694...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  123 

Manardus,  Johannes,  1462-1536  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  71 

Manfredi,  1430-1493  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  68 

Manson,  Sir  Patrick,  1844-1922  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  229 

Manzolini,  Anna,  nee  Morandi,  1716-1774  ...  ...  ...  ...  157 

Marat,  Jean  Paul,  1743-1793  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  169 

Marduk,  4,500  B.C.  ...  2 

Mauriceau,  Frangois,  1637-1709  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  128 

Marinus,  100  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ..  37 

Martialis,  165  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  27 

Marcianus,  165  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  27 

Mascagni,  Paolo,  1752-1815  174 


269 


Index 


Massa,  Nicolo,  1499-1569  

Matthis,  Florian,  1602  ... 

Mattioli,  Pietro  Andrea,  1501-1577 
Mayow,  John,  1643-1679 
McDowell,  Ephraim,  1771-1830 

Mead,  Richard,  1673-1754  

Meckel,  Johann  Friedrich,  1788-1833  ... 
Meges,  B.C.  20 

Meibom,  Heinrich,  1638-1700 

Meissner,  George,  1829-1905  

Melampous  

Mendeleeff,  Dmitri  Ivanovitsch,  1834-1907 
Menecrates  of  Zeophleta,  30 
Menodorus,  7° 

Menon 

Mercado,  Luis,  1520-1606  (Mercatus)  ... 
Merchettis,  Domenico  de,  1626-1688  ... 
Mercurialis,  Hieronymus,  1530-1606  ... 
Mercurius,  Scipio,  1538-1616  ... 

Merodach,  4500  B.c. 

Mery,  Jean,  1645-1772 

Mesmer,  Friedrich  Anton,  1734-1815  ... 
Mesnard,  Jacques,  1740... 

Mesue,  the  Elder,  777-857  

Metchnikoff,  Elie,  1845-1916  ... 

Metrodorus  of  Athens 
Milne-Edwards,  Henri,  1800-1885 
Minerva  Memor  ... 

Mirfeld,  John,  1360 
Mitchell,  Silas  Weir,  1830-1914 

Mithridates  VI.,  132-63  B.C 

Mnesitheos  of  Athens,  340  B.C. 

Modesy  or  Morrison,  Robert,  1620-1683 
Moore,  Sir  Norman,  1847-1922... 

Mondeville,  Henri  de,  1260-1320 
Mondino  de  Luzzi,  1276-1326  .. 

Monro,  Alex.,  1697-1767  

Monro,  Alex.,  Secundus,  1733-1817  ... 

Montagnana,  Bartolommeo,  d.  1460  ... 

Montgomery,  William  Fetherstone,  1797-1859 


PAGE 

80 

103 

83 

132 

183 

143 

192 

26 
129 

225 

11 

226 
32 

27 
23 
9i 

122 

95 

99 

2 

132 

165 

149 

46 

230 

22 

203 

12 

65 
225 

29 
21 
1 18 
232 
62 
62 

149 

165 

66 
201 


270 


Index 


PAGE 

Morandi-Manzolini,  Anna,  1716-1774...  ...  ...  ...  ...  157 

Morestede,  Thomas,  1385-1450  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  65 

Morgagni,  Giovanni  Baptista,  1682-177.2  ...  ...  ...  ...  146 

Morrison,  Robert,  1620-1683  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  118 

Morton,  Richard,  16351698  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  128 

Morton,  William  Thomas  Green,  1819-1868  ..  ...  ...  ...  219 

Moschion,  580  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  43 

Moses  ben  Maimon,  1 135-1204  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  54 

Muffet,  Thomas,  d.  1600  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  103 

Muller,  Johannes,  1801-1858  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  203 

Mundinus,  1276-1326  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  62 

Musa,  Antonius,  10  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  35 

Naboth,  Martin,  1675-1721 144 

Neale,  Richard,  1827-1900  ...  223 

Nelaton,  Auguste,  1807-1873  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  208 

Nenekhsekhmel  Sikhit  en  Ankh,  2700  B.c.  ...  ...  ...  ...  5 

Nettesheim,  Henrich  Cornelius  Agrippa  von,  1486-1535  ...  ...  74 

Nicaise,  Edward,  1838-1896  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  227 

Nicander  of  Colophon,  185-135  B.C.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  29 

Nicholaos  Myrepsos  of  Nicaea,  1250  ...  ..  ...  ...  ...  59 

Nicolaus  the  Salernitan,  1140  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ..  55 

Nina,  4500  B.C.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  2 

Ninib,  3000  B.c.  ...  ...  . . ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  3 

North,  Elisha,  1771-1843  ...  183 

Nuck,  Anton,  1650-1692  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  134 

Numenios  of  Heraklea  ...  . . ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  21 

Oannes,  5000  B.c.  1 

O’Dwyer,  Joseph,  1841-1898  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  229 

Oken,  Laurenz,  1779-1851  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  189 

Oribasius,  326-403  ....  ...  ...  ...  ..  ...  ...  40 

Osier,  Sir  William,  1849-^920  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  233 

Otto,  John  Conrad,  1774-1844  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  186 

Owen,  Sir  Richard,  1804-1892  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  207 

Pacchioni,  Antonio,  1664-1726  140 

Pacini,  Philip,  1812-1883  212 

Pagel,  Julius  Leopold,  1851-1912  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  233 

Paget,  Sir  James,  1814-1899  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  214 


27  I 


Index 


PAGE 

Palfyn,  Johnann,  1649-1730  ...  

Palladius  of  Alexandria,  543  ...  ...  ...  4g 

Panaceia  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  Ir 

Paracelsus,  1493-1541  ...  ...  ...  ...  . .,g 

Pare,  Ambroise,  1509-1590  ...  ...  ...  ...  g. 

Parkes,  Edmund  A.,  1819-1876  220 

Pasteur,  Louis,  1822-1895  ...  ...  ...  221 

Paulus  TEgineta,  625-690 

Pausanias  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  xg 

Payne,  Joseph  Frank,  1840-1910  ..  22g 

Pecquet,  Jean,  1624-1674  ...  ...  ...  ...  I2I 

Pedanius  Dioscorides  of  Anazaba,  40-90  ...  ...  gg 

Percival,  Thomas,  1740-1804  ...  xg^ 

Perkunnos  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  g 

Peter  of  Abano,  1250-1320  g2 

Petit,  Jean  Louis,  1674-1750  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  I44 

Petrus  ab  Argelata,  1400  ...  ...  ...  ...  gg 

Petty,  Sir  William,  1623-1687  ...  ...  ...  ...  I20 

Peyer,  Johann  Conrad,  1653-1712  ...  ...  ...  ;gg 

Pfolspeundt,  Heinrich  von,  1450-1533  ...  ...  ...  gg 

Philaiethes,  Demosthenes,  1 ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  26 

Philaretos  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  23 

Philinus  of  Cos,  250  b.c.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  28 

Philistion  of  Locris,  c.  370  b.c.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  xg 

Philolaos  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  jg 

Philotimus...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ..  ...  ...  ...  2i 

Philoxenos,  50  a.d.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  gg 

Philumenos,  250  ...  ...  ...  ..  ...  ...  ...  ...  gg 

Philumenos,  the  Methodic,  250...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  gg 

Phryesen,  Laurentius,  ca  1480  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  §x 

Physick,  Philip  Syng,  1768-1837  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  j Sx 

Pinel,  Philippe,  1755-1826  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  175 

Placenterius,  Julius  Casserius,  1561-1616  104 

Placitus,  Sextus,  of  Papyra,  370  ...  ...  ..  ...  ...  4I 

Platearius,  1130-1150  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  g4 

Plato,  43°-347  B.C 21 

Plater,  Felix,  1536-1614  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  gs 

Pleistonikos  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  21 

Podalirios  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  11 

Polybos  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  20 


272 


Index 


PAGE 

Polycreitos  of  Mende,  400  B.c.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  17 

Ponce,  Pedro  of  Leon,  1520-1584  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  92 

Poseidonios,  60  B.c.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  30 

Post,  Wright,  1766-1822 ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  180 

Pott,  Percivall,  1713-1788  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  156 

Poupart,  Francois,  1661-1708  ...  ...  ...  ...  139 

Praxagoras,  of  Cos,  fl.  340-320  B.C.  ...  ...  ...  21 

Priestley,  Joseph,  1733-1804  164 

Prodicus  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  13 

Proust,  Joseph  Louis,  1755-1826  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  175 

Psellus,  Michael  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  53 

Psycochristus  Jacobus,  460  ...  . , ...  ...  ...  ...  42 

Ptah  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  4 

Ptolemaios  of  Alexandria,  150  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  27 

Purkinje,  Jan  Evangel,  1787-1869  ...  ...  ...  ...  192 

Purmann,  Matthias  Gottfried,  1648-1721  ...  ...  ...  . 133 

Pythagoras,  580-489  B.C.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  14 

Quain,  Richard  1800-1887 203 

Quatrefrages,  Jean  Louis  Armar.d,  de  Breau,  1810-1892  ...  210 

Quercetanus,  1546-1609  ...  ...  . . ..  ...  ...  ...  101 

Quintus  Serenus  Sammonicus,  212  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  39 

Rabelais,  Franqois,  1494-1553  79 

Radcliffe,  John,  1650-1729  135 

Ramazzini,  Bernardino,  1633-1714  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  12b 

Ramsay,  Sir  William,  1852-1916  ...  ...  ...  ...  234 

Ranvier,  Louis,  1835-1922  227 

Rashidu’d  din  Fadlu’  llah,  1247  ...  ...  . . ...  ...  57 

Rathke,  Martin  Heinrich,  1793-1860  ...  ...  ...  ...  196 

Read,  Alexander,  1586-1641  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  Ill 

Recorde,  Robert,  1510-1558  86 

Reil,  Johann  Christian,  1759-1813  ...  ...  ...  ...  177 

Retzius,  Anders  Olof,  1796-1860  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  199 

Rhazes,  850-923  ...  ...  ...  ...  . ..  ...  ...  ...  49 

Ricardus  Anglicus,  1190-1252  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  55 

Richardson,  Benj.  Ward,  1828-1896  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  225 

Riolan,  Johann,  1577-1657  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  109 

Rivinus,  Augustus  Quirinus,  1652-1723  ...  ...  ...  ...  136 

Roch  le  Baillif  de  la  Riviere,  1533-1610  ...  96 

s 273 


Index 


PAGE 

Roger  of  Palermo,  1180...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  56 

Roland  of  Parma,  1250...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  56 

Rolando,  Luigi,  1773-1831  ...  ...  ...  ...  . ...  184 

Romberg,  Moritz  Heinrich,  1795-1873  ...  ...  ...  ...  199 

Rondelet,  Guillaume,  1507-1566  ...  ...  ...  ..  ...  84 

Ronsil,  Georg  Arnaud  de,  d.  1774  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  136 

Rontgen,  Wilhelm  Conrad  von,  1845-1923  ...  ...  ...  231 

Rosenmiiller,  Johann  Christian,  1771-1820  ...  ...  ...  182 

Rosslin,  Eucharius,  d.  1526  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  69 

Rousset,  Francois,  1580...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  77 

Rudbeck,  Olof,  1630-1702  124 

Rueff,  Jacob,  1500-1558 82 

Rufus  of  Ephesus,  100  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ..  ..  34 

Rush,  Benjamin,  1745-1813  ...  ...  ...  . ...  ...  170 

Rutley,  John,  1762-1838  178 

Ruysch,  Fridrik,  1638-1731  129 

Ryff,  Walter  Hermann,  1560  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  76 

Sabuco,  Louise  Oliva,  1562 105 

Salicet,  William  of,  1201-1277  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  57 

Sanctorius,  Santorio,  1561-1636  ...  ...  ...  105 

Santorini,  Giovanni  Domenico,  1681-1737  ...  ...  ...  ...  145 

Sappey,  Marie  Philibert  Constant,  1810-1896  ...  ...  210 

Savonarola,  Michael,  1462  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  66 

Saxtorph,  Mathias,  1740-1800 167 

Scarpa,  Antonio,  1747-1832  ...  ...  ...  ...  ..  ..  171 

Schaudinn,  Fritz,  1871-1906  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  236 

Scheele,  Carl  Wilhelm,  1742-1786  ...  ...  ...  168 

Schenk,  Johann,  1530-1598  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ..  95 

Schleiden,  Matthias  Jakob,  1804-1881...  ...  ...  ...  207 

Schlemm,  Friedrich,  1795-1858  ...  ...  ...  ...  198 

Schneider,  Conrad  Victor,  1614-1680  ...  ...  ...  ...  117 

Schwann,  Theodore,  1810-1882  ...  ...  ...  210 

Scribonius  Largus,  47  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  •••  ■■  32 

Scultetus,  Johann,  1595-1645 112 

Semmelweiss,  Ignaz  Philipp,  1818-1865  •••  •••  •••  2I^ 

Serapion  ol  Alexandria,  220  B.C.  ...  ...  ...  ...  2S 

Serapion  the  Elder,  802-849  ...  ...  ...  ...  •••  •••  46 

Servetus,  Michael,  1509-1553 s5 

Severin,  Peter,  of  Ribe,  1542-1602  99 

274 


Index 


Severino,  Marco  Aurelio,  1580-1656  ... 
Sextus  Placitus  of  Papyra,  370  ... 

Sharp,  Samuel,  1700-1778  

Sharpey,  William,  1802-1880  ... 

Sheldon,  John,  1752-1808 
Sheng  Nung,  2838-2698  B.C. 

Sibson,  Francis,  1814-1876 
Simon,  Sir  John,  1816-1904 
Simon  de  Corco  of  Genoa,  1330 
Simpson,  Sir  James  Young,  1811-1870 
Sims,  James  Marion,  1813-1833 

Sloane,  Sir  Hans,  1660-1753  

Smellie,  William,  1680-1763  

Soemmering,  Samuel  Thomas  von,  1755-1830 
Soerensen,  Peder  ... 

Solingen,  Cornelius  van,  1641-1687 
Soranus  of  Ephesus,  98-1 17 
Spallanzani,  Lazzaro,  1729-1799 
Spigelius,  Adrianus,  1578-1625 
Spon,  Charles,  1609-1684 
Stahl,  Georg  Ernest,  1660-1734 
Stark,  John  Christopher,  1753-1811 
Stark,  William,  .1741-1770 
Steno,  Nicolaus  (Stensen),  1638-1686  .. 
Sternberg,  George  Miller,  1838-1915  ... 
Sterne  (or  Stearne),  John,  1624-1669  .. 
Stephanus  of  Athens,  640 
Stilling,  Johann  Heinrich  Jung,  1740-1817 
Stokes,  Sir  William,  1804-1878... 

Stoll,  Maximilian,  1742-4787  ... 

Straton  of  Lampsacus,  280  B.C. 

Stromeyer,  Georg  Friedrich  Louis,  1804-1876 
Susruta,  600  B.C.  ... 

Swammerdam,  Jan,  1637-1686  ... 

Swieten,  Gerhard  van,  1700-1772 
Sydenham,  Thomas,  1624-1689... 

Syennsis  the  Cypriote,  360  b.c. 

Sylvius,  Jacobus,  1478-1555 
Sylvius,  Franriscus,  1614-1672  ... 


PAGE 
I IO 

41 

150 

205 

174 
6 

213 

217 

64 

211 

212 
139 
•45 

175 

99 

•30 

37 

162 

no 

115 

139 

174 

168 
128 
22S 
121 

45 

167 

206 

169 

23 

206 


127 

149 

120 

17 

73 

116 


275 


Index 


PAGE 

Tabernaemontanus,  Jac.  Theod.,  d.  159a  92 

Tagliacozzi,  Caspar,  1546-1599 101 

Tagaultius,  Jean,  d.  1545  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  77 

Tarin,  Pierre,  1725-1761 160 

Tarnier,  Etienne,  1828-1897  225 

Telesphorus  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  11 

Tenon,  Jacques  Rene,  1724-1816  159 

Thales  of  Miletus,  639-544  B.c.  13 

Thebesius,  Adrian  Christian,  1686-1732  ...  ...  ...  ..  147 

Themison,  123-43  B.C.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  31 

Theodorus,  80  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  34 

Theodorius  of  Cervia,  1205-1298  57 

Theophanes  Nonnus,  920  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  51 

Theophilos,  610-641  ...  44 

Theophrastos,  370-285  B.c.  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  22 

Theophrastus  Bombast  von  Plohenheim  [Paracelsus],  1493-1541  ..  78 

Thessalos,  380  B.c.  20 

Thessalus  of  Tralles,  60  ...  ...  33 

Thompson,  Sir  Henry,  1820-1904  220 

Thoth  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  3 

Thrita,  500  B.c 8 

Thurneysser,  Leonard,  of  Thurn,  1530-1595  ...  ...  ...  95 

Timoni,  Emanuel,  1714...  ...  ...  ..  ...  ..  ...  156 

Tissot,  Simon  Andr6,  1728-1797  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  161 

Torre,  Marc  Antonio  della,  1473-1506...  ...  ...  ...  ...  69 

Torti,  Francisco,  1658-1741  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  138 

Tragus,  Hieronymus,  1498-1560  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  80 

Travers,  Benjamin,  1783-1858  ...  ...  ...  ...  ..  190 

Treitz,  Wenzel,  1819-1872  ...  ...  ...  ..  ...  ...  219 

Trotula  de  Ruggieri,  1260  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  60 

Trousseau,  Armand,  1801-1867..  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  204 

Tulpius,  Nicholas,  1593-1672  ...  ...  ...  ...  ..  ...  112 

Turner,  William,  1568  ...  ...  ...  ...  ••  ...  ...  92 

Turner,  Thomas,  1793-1873  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  195 

Tyson,  Edward,  1650-1708  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  135 

Tzapotleman  .„  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  ...  9 

Uranius,  560  43 

276 


Vagbhatai,  625  B.C. 


8 


Index 


Valentine,  Basil,  fifteenth  century 

PAGE 
...  66 

Valescus  de  Taranta,  1470-1490 

67 

Valleriola,  Francois,  1504-1583.. 

...  83 

Valsalva,  Antonio  Maria,  of  Imolj,  1666-1725 

...  141 

Valverde,  Juan  di  Hamusco,  1560 

9i 

Varignana,  Guilelmo,  1330 

64 

Varolio,  Constantine,  1543-1575 

100 

Vater,  Abraham,  1684-1751 

146 

Vega,  Christobal  de,  1501-15S0... 

■ ■ 83 

Vegetius  ... 

41 

Verga,  Andrew,  181 1-1895  

...  211 

Vesalius,  Andreas,  1514-1564  ... 

..  88 

Vicary,  Thomas,  d.  1562 

...  78 

Vicq  d’Azyr,  Felix,  1748-1794  ... 

172 

Vidius,  Vidus,  15001569 

82 

Vieussens,  Raymond,  1631-1715 

131 

Vigo,  John  of,  1460-1519 

...  70 

Villalobos,  Francisco  Lopez  de,  1473-1560  ... 

...  72 

Vincent  de  Beauvais,  1264 

60 

Vinci,  Leonardo  da,  1452-1519  .. 

t * * 

69 

Virchow,  Rudolf,  1821-1902 

...  221 

Volta,  Alessandro,  1745-1827  ... 

...  171 

Wagler,  Karl  Gottlieb,  1732-1778 

...  163 

VVakley,  Thomas,  1795-1862 

...  198 

Warren,  John  Collins,  1778-1856 

...  188 

Waterhouse,  Benjamin,  1754-1846. 

175 

Wa  T’o,  221-264...  

6 

Watt,  Robert,  1774.1819 

...  185 

Wells,  Horace,  1815-1848 

...  215 

Wells,  William  Charles,  1757-1817 

...  176 

Wells,  Sir  Thomas  Spencer,  1818-1897 

...  219 

Welsch,  Georg  Hieronymus,  1624-1677 

120 

Weyer,  Johann,  1515-1588 

...  89 

Wharton,  Thomas,  1614-1656  ... 

...  116 

White,  Charles,  1728-1813 

...  161 

Wieland,  Melchior,  1589 

hi 

Wierus,  Johannes,  1515-1588 

...  89 

Wilde,  Sir  William  Robert  Wills,  1815-1876... 

...  215 

Willis,  Thomas,  1621-1675 

...  119 

277 


Index 


Wilson,  Sir  W.  J.  Erasmus,  1809-1884 

page 
...  209 

Winslow,  Jacques-Benigne,  1669-1760 

142 

Winston,  Thomas,  1575-1655 

108 

Winter,  John,  1487-1574 

76 

Wirsung,  Johann  Georg,  d.  1643 

111 

Wiseman,  Richard,  1625-1680  ... 

121 

Wistar,  Caspar,  1760-1818  

178 

Withering,  William,  1741-1799... 

168 

Woodall,  John,  1556-1643 

'03 

Wolff,  Caspar  Friedrich,  1 735-1 794 

166 

Wong  Tal,  2697  b.c. 

6 

Worm,  Olaus,  1588-1654  

hi 

Wren,  Sir  Christopher,  1632-1723  

126 

Wrisberg,  Heinrich  Auguste,  1739-1808 

...  167 

Wiirtz,  Felix,  1518-1575... 

90 

Wiinderlich,  Carl  Reinhold  August,  1815-1877 

215 

Wyer,  Johann,  1515-1588 

89 

Xenophon  of  Cos  

21 

* 

Young,  James,  1646-1721  ...  

133 

Young,  Thomas,  1773-1829 

184 

Yperman,  Jan,  1275-1330 

62 

Zaynu’d,  din  Isma’il  of  Jurjan  

49 

Zenon,  the  Stoic,  340-260  B.C.  ... 

23 

Zerbi,  Gabriel,  1468-1505 

7i 

Zeuxis  of  Tarentum,  50  B.c. 

25 

Zeuxis,  the  Elder,  250  b.c. 

28 

Zinn,  Johann  Gottfried,  1727-1759 

160 

Zopyros,  100-80  b.c. 

30 

Zoroaster,  2000  b.c. 

S 

278 


NOTES  AND  ADDITIONS. 


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